…Constantius and Galerius were made emperors; and the Roman world was divided between them in such a manner, that Constantius had Gaul, Italy, and Africa; Galerius Illyricum, Asia, and the East… Galerius, a man of excellent moral character, and skillful in military affairs, finding that Italy, by Constantius’s permission, was put under his government, created two Caesars, MAXIMIN, whom he appointed over the east, and SEVERUS, to whom he committed Italy. He himself resided in Illyricum… wrote Eutropius in Book X of Abridgement of Roman History about Emperor Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus. https://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans10.html
In the Epitome De Caesaribus, a booklet about the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores, sometimes attributed to Sextus Aurelius Victor, Emperor Galerius is described as …possessed of an uncultivated and rustic justice…he was, however, the author continues, praiseworthy enough, physically attractive, a skilled and fortunate warrior, sprung from country parents, a keeper of cattle, whence for him the cognomen Armentarius [“Herdsman”]. 16. He was born and also buried in Dacia Ripensis, a place which he had called Romulianum from the name of his mother, Romula. 17. He insolently dared to affirm that, in the fashion of Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great, his mother had conceived him after she had been embraced by a serpent.http://roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/epitome.htm
Living in Thessaloniki, where numerous buildings and structures commissioned by Galerius still grace the cityscape, serving as popular attractions, I find it necessary to introduce you to Emperor Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus, commonly referred to as Galerius. He held the position of Roman Emperor within the Tetrarchy system, a governance framework established by Emperor Diocletian, which partitioned the Roman Empire into four co-ruling territories. Galerius, during his rule as Augustus from 305 to 311 AD, gained renown for his multifaceted role within the Tetrarchy, his involvement in the Christian persecutions of the early 4th century, and his military campaigns waged against the Sassanid Empire and hostile Danube frontier tribes.
From the Octagon in the Palace of Galerius in Thessaloniki: “The Small Arch of Galerius”, Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki, Greece https://www.amth.gr/en/exhibitions/highlights
Much like many of his predecessors, Galerius was prominently featured in a multitude of portraits and statues throughout his reign. These artistic representations consistently cast him as a strong and unwavering leader, characterized by stern expression and adorned with intricate military regalia. Beyond their artistic merit, these depictions held profound historical value, serving as windows into the prevailing culture and politics of the Roman Empire during his rule. Moreover, they afford us a glimpse into the nuanced strategies employed by emperors to project their influence and command, shedding light on the perceptions held by their subjects and contemporaries.
Upon encountering his portrait at the Canellopoulos Museum in Athens, I was truly taken aback. Galerius appeared notably advanced in age, likely in the twilight of his life, exuding an aura of austerity, distance, and impassivity. Gazing upon his face, one can vividly sense the gravity of his station. Despite, however, the impression of weariness, detachment, and aloofness, the Emperor unmistakably embodies the quintessential image of an absolute monarch within the Tetrarchy – a power deserving of the most serious consideration!
For a PowerPoint of Portraits depicting Emperor Galerius, please… Check HERE!
Jean-Léon Gérôme, French Artist, 1824–1904 The First Kiss of the Sun, 1886, Oil on Canvas laid on Board, 54 x 100.4 cm, Private Collection https://www.christies.com/en/lot/lot-6438415
Characterized by Ackerman as “The most beautifully composed and painted of Gérôme‘s landscapes”. The First Kiss of the Sun was painted in 1886, six years after Gérôme‘s last trip to Egypt. https://www.christies.com/en/lot/lot-6438415 (G.M. Ackerman, Jean-Léon Gérome, London, 1986)
So… Who is Jean-Léon Gérôme? Why is his painting The First Kiss of the Sunso beautifully composed and painted? What do we know about his artistic achievements? Let’s explore Jean-Léon Gérôme’s oeuvre … by answering some questions!
Who is Jean-Léon Gérôme? He is a prominent 19th-century French academic painter, sculptor, and teacher known for his historical and Orientalist works. He was born on May 11, 1824, in Vesoul, France, and passed away on January 10, 1904, in Paris. Gérôme began his artistic training at an early age, studying under Paul Delaroche, a renowned historical painter. He later attended the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where he developed a meticulous and highly detailed style that characterized much of his work. His artistry drew heavily from historical and classical themes, often depicting scenes from ancient civilizations and mythology.
How and Why did Gérôme become famous? During the 1850s and 1860s, Gérôme gained widespread recognition and success for his paintings, which often featured archaeological and ethnographic elements. He was particularly acclaimed for his Orientalist pieces, showcasing scenes from the Middle East and North Africa, illustrating the exoticism and culture of these regions. He was a skilled draftsman as well, utilizing precise anatomical and architectural details in his work. His paintings were characterized by their careful composition, vibrant colours, and the depiction of intricate textures. He also explored themes of academic classicism, often depicting heroic or mythological figures.
How is an ‘Orientalist’ artist described? An “Orientalist” artist refers to a Western artist, usually from Europe or North America, who specializes in creating art that focuses on the depiction of the Orient. The Orient, in this context, typically referred to regions of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia. Orientalist artists were active primarily during the 19th and early 20th centuries, although the influence of Orientalism extends beyond this time frame.
Orientalist artists focused on portraying scenes, landscapes, people, and cultures from the Eastern world. These scenes often included depictions of daily life, historical events, architecture, landscapes, and various customs prevalent in the Orient. They often emphasized the exotic and romantic aspects of the Orient. Artists presented these regions as mysterious, alluring, and different from the Western world. The art was often intended to captivate and fascinate Western audiences.
Why is Gérôme considered to be an Orientalist artist? Gérôme is widely recognized for his artistic focus on depicting scenes, landscapes, and people from the Orient, particularly the Middle East and North Africa. He had, for example, a deep connection to Egypt that greatly influenced his artwork. This connection was primarily through his travels to Egypt, seven times to be precise, and his fascination with its culture, architecture, and history. Gérôme’s interest in Egypt is reflected in a significant portion of his body of work, particularly his Orientalist paintings and sculptures.
How is Gérôme’s painting ‘The First Kiss of the Sun’ best described? According to Christie’s, where The First Kiss of the Sun was auctioned in 2023, the painting dates from 1886, six years after Gérome’s last trip to Egypt. This is probably one of the artist’s most accomplished landscapes. It shows the pyramids of Giza suffused in the golden morning light of the desert sun. This view is from the west, as seen from the rising sun illuminating the summit of each pyramid. The ethereal appearance of the distant pyramids contrasts dramatically with the clearly detailed foreground. Moreover, the haze created by the sand and sunlight lends the picture an air of otherworldliness. The head of the Sphinx is just visible in the middle background.https://www.christies.com/en/lot/lot-6438415
The First Kiss of the Sun Gérôme provides a carefully detailed and beautifully rendered scene of the Giza Plateau, one of Egypt’s most iconic archaeological sites. Interestingly, the painting features the Pharaonic funerary buildings in the background along with a contemporary Bedouin camp in the foreground. The artist captures the soft and ethereal light of the rising sun, which casts a cooler, in my opinion, golden/violet glow on the ancient structures and the surrounding landscape.
How did Gérôme manage to leave a lasting impact on the art world? In addition to his artistic achievements, Gérôme was an influential teacher, serving as a professor at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. He mentored many aspiring artists, leaving a lasting impact on the art world through his teachings. Throughout his career, Jean-Léon Gérôme received numerous awards and honours, solidifying his reputation as a leading academic artist of the 19th century. Despite changing artistic trends, his work continues to be appreciated and studied for its historical significance and technical mastery.
For a PowerPoint Presentation of Jean-Léon Gérôme’s Paintings of Egypt, please… Check HERE!
The use of light and shadow accentuates the form and texture of the Pyramids, enhancing the sense of depth and three-dimensionality. Gérôme’s meticulous attention to detail is evident in the accurate rendering of the architectural elements and the presentation of the ‘exotic’ Bedouin campsite. The overall composition conveys a sense of awe and reverence for the historical and cultural significance of the site.
For a PowerPoint on French Academic Art, please… Check HERE!
Titian, 1488-1576 Isabella d’Este, Marquise of Mantua (1474–1539), 1534/36 Oil on Canvas, 101.9 × 64 cm, Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna, Austria https://tiziansfrauenbild.khm.at/en/
In a well-known passage in De pictura, Alberti describes the principal power of portraits,and even painting in general, as follows: Painting possesses a truly divine power in that it does not only make the absent present, as they say of friendship, but it also represents the dead to the living many centuries later […] Through painting, thefaces of the dead go on living for a very long time. Does Titian’s Portrait of Isabella d’Este possess a truly divine power in presenting the true likeness of the Marchioness of Mantua? https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2889008/view page 125
Titian’s renowned painting of Isabella d’Este, commonly referred to as La Bella (The Beautiful), was created in 1534 when Isabella herself was approximately 60 years old. Notably, the Marchioness of Mantua did not directly sit for Titian’s brush; instead, she dispatched a portrait of herself executed by Francesco Francia (now lost) in 1511 to provide a reference for her likeness. Titian, the accomplished Venetian master, concluded his Portrait in 1536, earning Isabella’s delight with the outcome. In a letter to the Mantuan ambassador in Venice, she acknowledged… The portrait by Titian’s hand captures such a pleasing essence that we are prompted to question whether, during the age he depicts us, we ever possessed the beauty it encapsulates.
Titian’s Portrait of Isabella d’Este is currently housed in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. It portrays Isabella as a young and exquisite woman, dressed in elegant attire, with a sophisticated hairstyle and adorned with jewels. The portrait may not be an accurate portrayal of Isabella turning sixty, but it effectively captures the regal poise and demeanor that defined the Marchioness of Mantua.
In the painting, Isabella is portrayed in a three-quarter profile, with her gaze slightly averted from the viewer. She is adorned in a sumptuous gown that combines shades of blue and black, intricately embellished with the fantasie dei vinci pattern, which serves as a testament to her position as a prominent noblewoman of her era. The hues of her attire are both dark and vivid, and the fashionable accessories that Isabella wears, pearl earrings and a fur shawl gracefully draped over her shoulder, have been meticulously rendered. These details not only reflect Isabella’s significance but also highlight Titian’s expertise in capturing textures and fabrics. https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2889008/view pp.22-23
1 am particularly drawn to the elegant arrangement of Isabella’s hair. The Marchioness wears a captivating bulbous headdress featuring a sizable brooch adorned with eight pearls encircling a gem. Isabella was a famous fashionista. The bulbous headdress (known as zazara at the time) was designed by Isabella herself, and the Titian painting served her own trendsetting fashion put on display. What a magnificent way to emphasize her majestic presence!
Isabella’s expression is both serene and confident, befitting her reputation as a powerful and influential figure. Her gaze conveys a sense of introspection and sophistication, while the faint hint of a smile gracing her lips adds an air of subtle allure. The play of light and shadow in the painting adds depth and dimension to Isabella’s features, enhancing the overall realism of the portrait. Titian’s skillful use of chiaroscuro, a technique that contrasts light and dark tones, gives the portrait a lifelike quality and a sense of depth.
The background of the painting is relatively simple, allowing the focus to remain on Isabella’s presence and personality, her elegance, grace, and authority. Through meticulous attention to detail, refined use of color and light, and a keen understanding of portraiture, Titian created a lasting image that captures the essence of Isabella’s character and her place in history.
For a PowerPoint, titled 9 Portraits of Isabella d’Este, please… Check HERE!… Check HERE!
An Interesting Video about Isabella d’Este the Marchioness of Mantua during Early Renaissance Italy by World History Encyclopedia (8:09 min)
Neck rings, such as the imposing goldPectoral with Coins and Pseudo-Medallion in the Metropolitan Museum in New York City, are cited in early sources as playing a role both in the glorification of military heroes and in coronation ceremonies. They were popular during the Late Roman period and continued well into the Early Byzantine era. Also known as Byzantine Imperial Collars or Byzantine Imperial Torcs, ornate necklaces like the MET example, were worn by members of the Byzantine imperial family and high-ranking officials during the Byzantine Empire (330-1453 AD). These neck rings were made of gold and decorated with medallions, coins, and intricate designs, often featuring Christian symbols. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/464070
The Metropolitan Museum pectoral necklace is composed of a plain, hollow neck ring attached to a frame set with a large central medallion flanked by coins, and two small decorative disks. The central medallion, encased by beaded wire, presents an unidentified Emperor in military attire on the obverse, and the enthroned personification of Constantinople on the reverse. Fourteen coins of Byzantine Emperors reigning during the fifth to the sixth centuries, are placed symmetrically, left, and right of the central medallion. The coins are surrounded by beaded wire as well. Crosses in niello, an interesting reference to Christianity, decorate the two small disks on either side of the medallion. The space between the coins and the medallion is filled with small rosettes and larger trefoils. The two ribbed rings at the pectoral’s lower edge once held a large medallion of the emperor Theodosius I (in the Collection of the Freer Gallery of Art). https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/464070 and https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Age_of_Spirituality_Late_Antique_and_Early_Christian_Art_Third_to_Seventh_Century Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, page 318-319
This amazing necklace was part of a hoard of thirty-four pieces of gold jewelry said to have been found at the turn of the twentieth century, possibly at ancient Lycopolis (modern Assiut) or Antinoöpolis (modern Sheikh Ibada), both in central Egypt. The circumstances of the hoard’s discovery remain obscure as the treasure was illegally excavated. The high quality of each piece links the treasure jewels to the imperial workshops in Constantinople. The hoard is now divided among the Metropolitan Museum; the British Museum, London; the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.; and the Staatliche Museen-Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin.Whether the pieces were indeed discovered together or were assembled from different sites, they represent the standard of luxury among the elite in Egypt under Byzantine rule and attest to the close connection between the wealthy province and the capital Constantinople.https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/The_Arts_of_Byzantium_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art_Bulletin_v_58_no_4_Spring_2001“The Arts of Byzantium”: The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v. 58, no. 4 (Spring, 2001), Page 19 and “Into the hands of a well-known antiquary of Cairo”: The Assiut Treasure and the Making of an Archaeological Hoard by Elizabeth Dospěl Williams, West 86th: A Journal of Decorative Arts, Design History, and Material Culture, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Fall-Winter 2014), pp. 251-272 https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/679985?read-now=1#page_scan_tab_contents
The Byzantine Imperial Neck Rings were not just a fashion accessory, they were a symbol of power and authority. The imperial family, for example, wore them on important occasions, such as coronations, to demonstrate their wealth and status. Members of the Byzantine military elite, on the other hand, wore them as trophies of their military distinction. According to Procopius, soldiers were rewarded with money, and honoured with precious necklaces or bracelets. It is interesting to note that during the Early Byzantine period, men and women wore such necklaces alike. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Age_of_Spirituality_Late_Antique_and_Early_Christian_Art_Third_to_Seventh_Century Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century, edited by Kurt Weitzmann, 1979, page 318-319
For a PowerPoint on the so-called Assiut Treasure, please… Check HERE!
The Paul and Alexandra Canellopoulos Museum in Athens, Greece, is a small treasure trove of outstanding antiquities, showcasing the Museum’s Ancient Art collection spanning from Prehistory to the Roman Era. The collection boasts objects dating back to the Neolithic period (6000-3200 BC), followed by representative examples from civilizations that thrived in the region during the Bronze Age (3000-1100 BC), the Early Iron Age (1100-88 BC), and the Archaic period (7th-6th century BC). Notably, the Archaic period exhibits Corinthian vases adorned with decorative motifs inspired by imaginary beings from the East, such as the Corinthian Arybalos, which I would like to present to you today!
So… Let’s explore the How of an amazing small masterpiece in the Canellopoulos Museum, in Athens… by answering some questions!
How can we best describe the characteristics of the Orientalizing period in ancient Greek Art?
The Orientalizing period in ancient Greek art refers to a significant phase that occurred during the 7th century BCE. It is characterized by a notable influence of artistic motifs and elements from the Near East and Egypt, which were collectively known as the “Orient” to the ancient Greeks. During this period, Greek city-states began to engage in increased trade and cultural contact with the civilizations of the Near East, such as Phoenicia, Assyria, and Egypt. As a result, Greek artists and craftsmen were exposed to new artistic styles, techniques, and iconography, which they integrated into their own artistic expressions.
A key characteristic of the Orientalizing period in ancient Greek art is the adoption of Eastern motifs that included animals like lions and sphinxes, as well as mythical creatures and floral patterns. Greeks, however, were always fond of expressing narrative in their vase painting and they appropriated Near Eastern creatures like the sphinx, for example, or the siren and altered their basic function by making them a part of a larger story. Orientalizing art may look Oriental on the surface but is still recognizably Greek below.
It is important to note that the Orientalizing period was not a homogenous style but rather a phase of artistic transition that laid the groundwork for the subsequent Archaic period. The influence of the Orient on Greek art gradually declined during the 6th century BCE as the Greek city-states developed their own distinctive artistic styles, leading to the flourishing of the Classical period of ancient Greek art. https://www.colorado.edu/classics/2018/06/15/orientalizing-period-ancient-greece
How can we best describe the characteristics of Pottery during the Orientalizing period in ancient Greek art?
During the Orientalizing period in ancient Greek art, pottery underwent significant changes in terms of style, decoration, and iconography. Vessels became more varied and sophisticated, with influences from Eastern pottery shapes and forms. For example, the aryballos (a small, globular-shaped container) and the alabastron (a slender, often pointed bottle) were popular shapes during this time. The period, which occurred from approximately the late 8th century BC to the early 6th century BC, was marked by the influence of Eastern motifs, like lions, sphinxes, and griffins, as well as floral and geometric patterns which became popular, along with the representation of human figures in a more lifelike manner.
How can we best describe the characteristics of Corinthian Pottery during the Orientalizing period in ancient Greek Art?
During the Orientalizing period in ancient Greek art, Corinthian pottery underwent a transformative shift from its earlier geometric style to a more figurative and narrative-focused approach. Influenced by artistic traditions from the Near East and Egypt, Corinthian potters embraced animal motifs, mythical creatures, and composite beings in dynamic poses. Corinthian vessels were adorned with intricate designs, covering the entire surface, exemplifying the abundance and opulence of this period. Utilizing the black-figure technique, they painted dark silhouettes against a yellowish-orange background, embellishing the scenes with incised lines to add detail. To fill empty spaces on these vases, palmettes and lotus blossoms were utilized in place of traditional geometric patterns, and in some cases, negative space gained more prominence.
How can we best describe the Corinthian Alabastron in the Canellopoulos Museum, in Athens?
The Canellopoulos Museum Alabastron from Corinth is typical of the Orientalizing period. This type of pottery, used for holding precious perfumed oils, originated around the 11th century BC in ancient Egypt, and spread via ancient Greece, to many parts of the Mediterranean world. Most Alabastra vases of the Orientalizing period have a narrow body with a rounded end, a narrow neck, and a broad mouth. Alabastra vases were often left without handles, but, for easy mobility, some types were equipped with one, or two, small projections into which holes were punched for strings to pass through, just like the Corinthian Alabastron in Athens.
According to Dr. Moschonesioti… The horizontal rim of the Canellopoulos Museum Alabastro is decorated with a tongue pattern and the vertical side of the rim with broken lines. The neck of the vase is decorated with a tongue pattern and the uppermost part of the vase with three parallel lines. Below them, two wide bands separate three decorative zones with (dancing?) komasts (mythological figures associated with God Dionysus) holding horns. Around the figures, which are presented dressed in purple, floral ornaments, such as large and small rosettes, heart-shaped leaves, and lotus flowers, densely cover the remaining surface of the vase. https://camu.gr/item/korinthiako-alavastro/
The Canellopoulos Museum Alabastro vase boasts an exquisite display of intricate decorations. From the tongue patterns adorning the horizontal and neck rims to the graceful lines and mythological figures of komasts, the artistry captivates the viewer’s eye, standing as a testament to the creativity and craftsmanship of its time.
For a Student Activity inspired by the Corinthian Alabastron in the Canellopoulos Museum, please… Check HERE!
October is the treasurer of the year, / And all the months pay bounty to her store; / The fields and orchards still their tribute bear, / And fill her brimming coffers more and more… The painting October by Jules Bastien-Lepage fills October’s brimming coffers with… ordinary potatoes, and back-breaking labor. Yet, there is such dignity in Bastien-Lepage’s presentation of this unassuming composition, that I would like to explore it more… https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/october-39/comments/
Bastien-Lepage produced a collection of deeply personal artworks, firmly establishing his position within the Naturalism movement’s historical timeline. His oeuvre is focused on three main areas of art, namely, depicting realistic genre themes, creating rural landscapes, and fashioning truthful portraits. The sincerity portrayed in his paintings gained him a loyal following not only in France but also across Europe. Beauty, I am convinced, Jules Bastien-Lepage once said, is the exact truth: neither to the right nor to the left, but in the middle! https://www.theartstory.org/artist/bastien-lepage-jules/
The artist was born (November 1, 1848) in Damvillers, France, and showed an early talent for art. He studied at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where he was influenced by the works of the Barbizon School painters, particularly Jean-Baptiste Corot and Gustave Courbet. Bastien-Lepage’s style combined elements of Realism with a focus on capturing the effects of light and atmosphere. His approach to painting often involved working directly from nature, capturing the effects of light and the nuances of everyday life. His subjects included landscapes, portraits, and genre scenes, all characterized by meticulous attention to detail and a sense of honesty and seriousness.
Unfortunately, Jules Bastien-Lepage’s career was cut short when he died at the age of thirty-six. His work, however, had a significant impact on the development of Naturalism and influenced many artists who followed. Today, regarded as an important figure in the history of 19th-century French art, Bastien-Lepage is respected for the sincerity, and the dignity with which he depicted the Meuse region in which he grew up, and the workers and peasants who his brush rendered! https://www.theartstory.org/artist/bastien-lepage-jules/
For the Paris Salon Bastien-Lepage created and exhibited a pair of Harvest Scenes that marked a new direction in his career as a painter. The earlier of the two works, The Haymakers, (today, in the Musée d’Orsay), exhibited at the Salon in 1878, shows two weary haymakers resting in the summer heat. The second painting, exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1879, and titled October or The Potato Harvest, (today, in the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia) is an account of the bleak autumnal potato harvest, set in a bare, featureless landscape. Both paintings, powerfully rendered, and careful studies of life in the fields, had a considerable influence on the art scene of the time. Both paintings created a new trend in art, and, without intention on Bastien-Lepage’s part, the painter of the Meusian peasants became the head of an Art School. https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/explore/collection/work/3768/
October or The Potato Harvest was an 1879 Salon success. Carried out on a large canvas, the painting indicates Bastien-Lepage’s ambitious artistic program but also bespeaks his confidence in his own technical virtuosity. The artist presents its theme in a solemn key, with warm yet sober colours, and an exquisite understanding of the country in the late summer. It was powerfully executed, full of vigor, serenity, and the ability to combine the high ‘finish’ expected of a conventional academic picture with the looser brushwork associated with the Impressionists.https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/explore/collection/work/3768/
Jules Bastien-Lepage, French artist, 18480-1884 October (detail), 1878, oil on canvas, 180.7 x 196.0 cm, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia https://www.flickr.com/photos/eoskins/19429557290
The Salon audience noticed the painting’s artistic power, and the Russian painter Vasily Surikov upon seeing it in Paris wrote to his colleague Pavel Chistyakov… I want to talk about those few works that have true dignity. Take Bastien-Lepage’s picture of a Woman Picking Potatoes. The face is both painted and written as living. Everything is written in the air. Reflexes, color, everything is so whole, unbroken, that it is a miracle.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_(painting)
For a PowerPoint on the artistic oeuvre of Jules Bastien-Lepage, please… Check HERE!
The Choice of Heracles by Annibale Carracci is probably loosely inspired by Philostratus’ Life of Apollonius of Tyana (6.10)… You have seen in picture-books the representation of Heracles by Prodicus; in it Heracles is represented as a youth, who has not yet chosen the life he will lead; and vice and virtue stand in each side of him plucking his garments and trying to draw him to themselves. Vice is adorned with gold and necklaces and with purple raiment, and her cheeks are painted and her hair delicately plaited and her eyes underlined with henna; and she also wears golden slippers, for she is pictured strutting about in these; but virtue in the picture resembles a woman worn out with toil, with a pinched look; and she has chosen for her adornment rough squalor, and she goes without shoes and in the plainest of raiment, and she would have appeared naked if she had not too much regard for her feminine decency. Interesting and revealing to say the least! The ancient Greek myth was invented by the sophist Prodico and perhaps suggested to Annibale Carracci by Fulvio Orsini, the librarian of the Farnese family. Interesting and revealing to say the least! https://www.livius.org/sources/content/philostratus-life-of-apollonius/philostratus-life-of-apollonius-6.6-10/
On Heracles’s left side, Carracci presents a striking woman, the personification of Pleasure, standing in front of a lush landscape, green, luxuriant, and blossoming. She gestures to play cards, musical instruments, and theatrical masks. She entices him with her presence, the symbols of carnal pleasures, and her words… Heracles, I see that you are in doubt about which path to take toward life. Make me your friend; follow me, and I will lead you along the pleasantest and easiest road. You shall taste all the sweets of life; and hardship you shall never know. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Xen.%20Mem.%202.1&lang=original
On Heracles’s right side, Carracci painted the personification of Virtue, who according to Xenophon, addressed young Heracles in an exemplary way… I, too, am come to you, Heracles: I know your parents and I have taken note of your character during the time of your education. Therefore I hope that, if you take the road that leads to me, you will turn out a right good doer of high and noble deeds, and I shall be yet more highly honoured and more illustrious for the blessings I bestow. But I will not deceive you by a pleasant prelude: I will rather tell you truly the things that are, as the gods have ordained them. [28] For of all things good and fair, the gods give nothing to man without toil and effort. If you want the favour of the gods, you must worship the gods: if you desire the love of friends, you must do good to your friends: if you covet honour from a city, you must aid that city: if you are fain to win the admiration of all Hellas for virtue, you must strive to do good to Hellas: if you want land to yield you fruits in abundance, you must cultivate that land: if you are resolved to get wealth from flocks, you must care for those flocks: if you essay to grow great through war and want power to liberate your friends and subdue your foes, you must learn the arts of war from those who know them and must practice their right use: and if you want your body to be strong, you must accustom your body to be the servant of your mind, and train it with toil and sweat.’ [29]
Carracci’s personification of Virtue is presented as a young, unpretentious woman, dressed in blue and red. She stands in front of an arid landscape, and points at the winding road up a mountain plateau, where the winged Pegasus, emblem of the Farnese family, awaits Heracles to guide him to Mount Olympus. A life of Virtue, however, does not come without fame and distinction. In the lower-left corner, Carracci painted a poet crowned in laurels looking up to Virtue and Heracles, ready to immortalize the Hero’s accomplishments and assure him great renown.
Annibale Carracci, 1560-1609 Camerino Farnese (the ceiling), 1596, 4.8×9.4m, Private Room of Cardinal Oduardo Farnese. Palazzo Farnese, Rome, Italy https://it.ambafrance.org/Camerino-d-Ercole
The Choice of Heracles by Annibale Carraccionce graced the center of the ceiling in a small room known as the Camerino di Ercole in the Farnese Palace in Rome. The room’s iconography was determined by the palace’s librarian, Fulvio Orsini, who knew the fifth-century Ancient Greek parable involving Hercules… Cardinal Odoardo Farnese selected Annibale to execute the Camerino’s decor, which the artist completed between 1595–97. In 1662 the Carracci’s canvas was replaced by a copy, still in place, underwent various movements, and then became part of the “Cabinet of obscene paintings” of the Royal Bourbon Museum. Today, it is exhibited in Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte, Naples, Italy. https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/hercules-at-the-crossroads-annibale-carracci/EwGkF5dbmWVeHw and https://capodimonte.cultura.gov.it/oggi-e-il-compleanno-di-annibale-carracci/
For a Student Activity inspired by Annibale Carracci’s The Choice of Heracles, please… Check HERE!
Lorenzo Ghiberti, 1378-1455 Sacrifice of Isaac, 1401, Gilded Bronze, 45 × 38 cm, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence, Italy Filippo Brunelleschi, 1377-1446 Sacrifice of Isaac, 1401, Gilded Bronze, 41 × 36 cm, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence, Italy https://idole-rivalen.khm.at/en/
In 1400, a competition was announced for a bronze double door at the Baptistery in Florence. While such contests were no rarity, this one is considered a classic of its kind. A jury of 34 declared the winner to be Lorenzo Ghiberti, whose composition was regarded as better balanced, not to mention its using around seven kilograms less of the valuable material. Hardly any history of Renaissance art fails to mention this event as a founding moment. The Brunelleschi vs. Ghiberti competition is the best introduction, in my humble opinion, to 15th-century Italian Renaissance Art. https://idole-rivalen.khm.at/en/
Filippo Brunelleschi, 1377-1446 Sacrifice of Isaac, 1401, Gilded Bronze, 41 × 36 cm, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence, Italy https://www.artesvelata.it/concorso-1401/
From the life of Filippo Brunelleschi… in the year 1401, now that sculpture had risen to so great a height, it was determined to reconstruct the two bronze doors of the Church and Baptistery of San Giovanni, since, from the death of Andrea Pisano to that day, they had not had any masters capable of executing them. This intention being, therefore, communicated to those sculptors who were then in Tuscany, they were sent for, and each man was given a provision and the space of a year to make one scene; and among those called upon were Filippo and Donato, each of them being required to make one scene by himself, in competition with Lorenzo Ghiberti, Jacopo della Fonte [Jacopo della Quercia], Simone da Colle, Francesco di Valdambrina, and Niccolo d’ Arezzo. These scenes, being finished in the same year and being brought together for comparison, were all most beautiful and different one from the other; one was well designed and badly wrought, as was that of Donato; another was very well designed and diligently wrought, but the composition of the scene, with the gradual diminution of the figures, was not good, as was the case with that of Jacopo della Quercia; a third was poor in invention and in the figures, which was the manner wherein Francesco di Valdambrina had executed his; and the worst of all were those of Niccolo d’ Arezzo and Simone da Colle. The best was that of Lorenzo di Cione Ghiberti, which had design, diligence, invention, art, and the figures very well wrought. Nor was that of Filippo much inferior, wherein he had represented Abraham sacrificing Isaac; and in that scene a slave who is drawing a thorn from his foot, while he is awaiting Abraham and the ass is browsing, deserves no little praise.
The scenes, then, being exhibited, Filippo and Donato were not satisfied with any save with that of Lorenzo, and they judged him to be better qualified for that work than themselves and the others who had made the other scenes. And so with good reasons they persuaded the Consuls to allot the work to Lorenzo, showing that thus both the public and the private interest would be best served; and this was indeed the true goodness of friendship, excellence without envy, and a sound judgment in the knowledge of their own selves, whereby they deserved more praise than if they had executed the work to perfection. Happy spirits! who, while they were assisting one another, took delight in praising the labors of others. How unhappy are those of our own day, who, not sated with injuring each other, burst with envy while rending others? The Consuls besought Filippo to undertake the work in company with Lorenzo, but he refused, being minded rather to be first in an art of his own than an equal or a second in that work. Wherefore he presented the scene that he had wrought in bronze to Cosimo de’ Medici, who after a time had it placed on the dossal of the altar in the old Sacristy of San Lorenzo, where it is to be found at present; and that of Donato was placed in the Guild of the Exchange.
Lorenzo Ghiberti, 1378-1455 Sacrifice of Isaac, 1401, Gilded Bronze, 45 × 38 cm, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence, Italy https://www.artesvelata.it/concorso-1401/
From the Life of Lorenzo Ghiberti… He had not been long absent from home when the plague ceased, and the Signoria of Florence and the art of the merchants, seeing that there were a number of excellent artists in sculpture at that time, both foreigners and Florentines, thought that it would be a favourable opportunity to make the other two doors of S. Giovanni, the ancient and principal church of the city, a matter which had frequently been discussed. It was arranged by them that all the masters considered to be the best in Italy should be invited to come to Florence to compete in making bronze panels similar to those which Andrea Pisano had done for the first door. Ghiberti was working at Lesare at the time but although offers of higher wages were promised, he availed nothing, for to Lorenzo it seemed worth a thousand years to return to Florence, and he accordingly set out and reached his home in safety. Many foreigners had already arrived and reported themselves to the consuls of the arts. From among them seven masters in all were selected: three Florentines, and the remainder Tuscans. A provision of money was set apart for them, and it was stipulated that within a year each of them should produce, as an example of his skill, a bronze panel of the same size as those of the first door. It was determined that the scene represented should be the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham, which was considered to be a good subject in which the masters could grapple with the difficulties of the art, because it comprises a landscape, figures both nude and draped, and animals, while the figures in the foreground might be made in full relief, those in the middle distance in half-relief, and those in the background in bas-relief. The competitors for this work were: Filippo di ser Brunellesco, Donato and Lorenzo di Bartoluccio, Florentines, and Jacopo dalla Quercia of Siena, Niccolo d’Arezzo his pupil, Francesco di Vandabrina, 1 and Simone da Colie, sumamed “of the bronzes,” who all promised the consuls to have their panels ready at the appointed time.
They set to work and devoted all their study and diligence, all their strength and knowledge, to surpass each other, keeping what they did close secret, so that they might not light upon the same ideas. Lorenzo alone, who enjoyed the help of Bartoluccio, who made him take great pains and prepare many models before he resolved upon adopting any one of them, continually brought his fellow citizens, and also passing strangers if they understood the trade, to see his work and hear their opinion. By the aid of their criticisms he was enabled to produce a model which was beautifully made and absolutely without a fault. Having shaped his figures and cast the whole in bronze, it proved excellent; and he and his father, Bartoluccio, polished it with such devotion and patience that it was impossible for it to have been better finished. When the time arrived for it to be exhibited in the competition, his panel and those of the other masters were handed over to the art of the merchants to be adjudicated upon. When they came to be examined by the consuls and several other citizens many various opinions were expressed. Numbers of strangers had assembled in Florence, some painters, some sculptors, and some goldsmiths, who were invited by the consuls to come and judge the works in conjunction with others of the same professions who lived in Florence. They numbered thirty-four persons in all, each of them being an adept in his art, and although there were differences of opinion among them, some preferring the style of one and some that of another, yet they were agreed that Filippo di ser Brunellesco and Lorenzo di Bartoluccio had composed and finished a larger number of figures better than Donato had done, although his panel exhibited great powers of design. In that of Jacopo dalla Quercia the figures were good but lacking in delicacy, in spite of the good design and the care bestowed. The work of Francesco di Vandabrina contained good heads and was well finished, but the composition was confused. That of Simone da Colle was a good cast, because he was a founder by profession, but the design was not very good. The production of Niccolo d’Arezzo, showing great skill, was marred by stunted figures and absence of finish. Lorenzo’s alone was perfect in every part, and it may still be seen in the audience chamber of the art of the merchants. The whole scene was well designed and the composition excellent, the figures being slender and graceful, the pose admirable and so beautifully finished that it did not look as if it had been cast and polished, but rather as if it had been created by a breath. Donato and Filippo, when they perceived what diligence Lorenzo had devoted to his work, withdrew to one side and agreed that the work ought to be given to him, for it seemed to them that public and private interests would thus be best served, and as Lorenzo was a young man, not past twenty, he would be able to realize in the production of this work the great promise of his beautiful scene, which; according to their judgment, he had made more excellently than the others: adding that it would be more shameful to dispute his right to preeminence than generous to admit it. Accordingly Lorenzo began on that door opposite the opera of S. Giovanni,’ constructing a large wooden frame for a part of it of the exact size he desired, in the shape of a frame with the ornamentation of heads at the angles about the spaces for containing the scenes and the surrounding friezes. After he had made the mold and dried it with all diligence, he set up a huge furnace, which I remember having seen, and filled the frame with metal. He did this in some premises he had bought opposite S. Maria Nuova, where the hospital of the weavers, known as the Threshing floor, now stands. But realising that all was not going well, he did not lose courage or become distracted, but traced the cause of the disorder and altered his mold with great quickness without anyone knowing it, recasting the world, which came out most successfully. He went on similarly with the rest of the work, casting each scene separately, and then putting them in their appointed places. The division of the scenes was similar to that adopted by Andrea Pisano in the first door designed for him by Giotto.
It is always interesting to go as close as possible to primary sources!
For a PowerPoint on the competition panels, please… Check HERE!
Idols & Rivals, Artists in Competition (September 20, 2022 – January 8, 2023) was an interesting Exhibition in the Kunsthistorischen Museum in Vienna. It showed how in antiquity, the Renaissance, and the Baroque, artists competed with one another and how, in addition, they measured themselves against ancient models. This kind of competition has brought forth some of the best-known works in the history of art. Among the competitors were Brunelleschi and Ghiberti… https://idole-rivalen.khm.at/en/
The Monument ofEpiskopi on Sikinos, one of the smallest Cycladic islands, is a Roman mausoleum dating back to the 3rd century. Because of its conversion to a Byzantine church, it was continuously used and has therefore survived nearly intact. Its ancient structure, combined with interventions from several historical periods, offers an incomparable palimpsest of archaeological periods that is rarely preserved in ancient monuments. Severely affected by destructive earthquakes and human interventions throughout the centuries, the monument was abandoned in the 20th century. The Ephorate of Antiquities of the Cyclades decided to restore the building in 2016. In 2022 the monument, fully restored and fully studied by the scientific personnel of the Cyclades Ephorate of Antiquities, reopened to the public. https://www.europeanheritageawards.eu/winners/monument-of-episkopi/
How can we introduce the Island of Sikinos? Sikinos is a tiny and rocky island with few permanent inhabitants, located in the Cyclades, between the islands of Ios and Folegandros. It has an area of approximately 42 square kilometers and a population of around 300 people. It is a quiet and peaceful island with a traditional way of life. The main village, called Chora, is built on a hill and has narrow streets, white-washed houses, and stunning views of the Aegean Sea. Other villages on the island include Alopronia, a small fishing village with a sandy beach, and Episkopi, where the historic Episkopi Church is located.
Is the Island of Sikinos related to any Greek Myth? According to Greek Mythology, the island of Sikinos is named after the son of Thoas, King of Lemnos, and son of God Dionysos and Princess Ariadne. Ypsipyli, Thoa’s daughter, trying to save her father from the Lemnian women who were killing the male inhabitants of the island, hid him in a wooden box and threw him into the sea. The waves of the sea led Thoa’s box to the island of Oinoe, where the king married the nymph Niida, who gave birth to a boy called Sikinos. It was Thoa’s son and grandson of Dionysos and Ariadne, who gave his name to the island during his reign.
The History of the Island: The island has a long and fascinating history, dating back to ancient times when the island was known for its vineyards and wine production. The island was also known as an important religious center, with a temple dedicated to Apollo the Pythian located on the island’s highest peak. Sikinos’s history parallels that of the other Cyclades islands, passing from Roman to Byzantine rule, and then falling to the Venetians and the Ottomans.
In the 13th century AD, Sikinos was conquered by the Venetians, who built a fortress on the island to protect it from pirates and other invaders. During this time, the island became an important center for trade and commerce, and its wine was exported throughout the Mediterranean. In the 16th century, Sikinos was occupied by the Ottoman Turks, who ruled the island for nearly 300 years. During this time, the island’s population declined, and many Sikinians migrated to other parts of Greece and to other countries. In the early 19th century, Sikinos became part of the newly formed Greek state, and the island began to experience a period of growth and prosperity. The island’s vineyards were revived, and Sikinos once again became an important center for wine production. https://sikinostravel.com/sikinos-island/history/
Which is the most important monument on the Island of Sikinos? Undauntedly Episkopi, or the monument of the Diocese of Sikinos. According to Dr Dimitrios Athanasoulis, Director of the Ephorate of Antiquities of the Cyclades… The monument of the Diocese of Sikinos, one of the smaller islands of the Cyclades, was, originally, a Roman period mausoleum, built during the 3rd century AD. The mausoleum became a Byzantine church, and subsequently, an important landmark of cultural heritage for the island community throughout the centuries. https://www.lifo.gr/now/entertainment/episkopi-sikinoy-ena-monadiko-mnimeio-apodidetai-simera-sto-koino
What new archaeological information did the restoration of Episkopi bring to light? The archaeological research that took place during the restoration of the monument, Dr Dimitrios Athanasoulis said, enriched our knowledge of the funerary monuments of the Roman period in the Eastern Mediterranean region, as well as of Byzantine church building in the Cyclades. During the restoration work of Episkopi, valuable evidence of the past was revealed, such as inscriptions and fragments of Roman and Byzantine frescoes, for the preservation of which a microclimate monitoring system was installed. The most important find was the hermetically sealed, undisturbed burial of a woman of the upper class, named “Neiko”, with findings that betrayed superstitions and necrophobic notions. https://www.lifo.gr/now/entertainment/episkopi-sikinoy-ena-monadiko-mnimeio-apodidetai-simera-sto-koino
Why was the monument of Episkopi on Sikinos bestowed the Europa Nostra Award in 2022? The monument of Episkopi is a cultural landmark and a source of pride for this small island community. Building materials were reused as much as possible and new masonry was incorporated using locally collected stones. The combination of architectural elements of a Roman mausoleum in a Byzantine church forms a unique monument that is simply striking… emphasized by the Awards’ Jury. https://www.europeanheritageawards.eu/winners/monument-of-episkopi/
The family offering of Daochos II, or of the House of the Thessalians was initially erected on the prominent terrace northeast of the temple. It comprises a group of marble statues dedicated to Apollo by Daochos II, a Thessalian dignitary from Pharsalus, who represented his people in the Amphictyonic League of Delphi (336-332 BC) where he served the interests of the Macedonians. Nine statues stood on a narrow space: Apollo (lost) and eight representatives of the dedicator’s powerful family (Agias Son of Aknonios is one of them) who were famous for their political, military and athletic exploits. We know the names and glorious deeds of the men represented from the inscriptions carved on the front of the base. Although the figures are deployed in a line and differ from one another in pose and dress, they nevertheless interact through the symmetrical or contrasting movement of their bodies, gestures, and turns of the head. Rosina Colonia, The Archaeological Museum of Delphi, John S. Latsis Public Benefit Foundation, Athens, Greece, page 321 https://www.latsis-foundation.org/content/elib/book_13/delphoi_en.pdf
The monument of Daoxhos II at Delphi, a family portrait gallery of eight statues, showcases six successive generations within the direct family lineage of Daochos II, stretching back to the late 6th century. It starts on the right side of the Monument, with the statue of Apollo (the statue is lost), the deity to whom the monument was dedicated. Based on the size and shallow nature of the carving, it is likely that the statue depicted Apollo in a seated position.
On the right side of Apollo, the unknown artist of the Monument placed the statue of Aknonios, great-great-grandfather of Daochos II, who lived during the Persian Wars and served as Tetrarch of Thessaly. Aknonios is followed by his three sons, all of them distinguished athletes. First comes the oldest son, Agias, the great-grandfather of Daochos II. Placed next to his father following a generational sequence, Agias was a distinguished athlete of Pankration, an Olympian, and the winner of many Panhellenic Games during the 5th century. His brother Telemachos, a 440 BC Olympic Games Wrestling Winner comes next, followed by the younger of the three brothers, Agelaos, a champion Runner. Daochos I, son of Agias, grandfather of the monument’s donor, and Tetrarch of Thessaly for twenty-seven peaceful years are placed next to Agelaos. He is followed by Sisyphus I, his son, a military man, his grandson, and donor, Daochos II, and finally Sisyphus II, the youngest member of the Thessalian family.
The statue of each depicted member of the Thessalian family is differentiated, by pose, anatomy, and dress. Each statue stands alone, yet, their body postures, hand gestures, and the way their heads turn unite them, creating a tight composition. The represented statesmen, for example, Aknonios and Daochos I, depicted wearing the short chlamys favoured by Macedonian and Thessalian men, look sturdy and solemn. Sisyphus I, the only military representative in the Daochos II group, is presented as if he is giving military orders. As for the rest, Agias, Telemachos, Agelaos, and young Sisyphus II, presented in the nude, are perfect examples of youth and athletic prowess.
The statue of Agias son of Aknonios, and great-grandfather of Daochos II, is the Monument’s most preserved and most significant artwork. The Monument’s epigram, beneath his statue, identifies him as a distinguished athlete… Πρῶτος Ὀλύμπια παγκράτιον, Φαρσάλιε, νίκαις | Ἀγία Ἀκνονίου, γῆς ἀπὸ Θεσσαλίας, | πεντάκις ἐν Νεμέαι, τρις Πύθια, πεντάκις Ἰσθμοῖ · | καὶ σῶν οὐδεὶς πω στῆσε τρόπαια χερῶν… Man from Pharsalos (a town in Thessaly), having won the pankration first in Olympia, Agias, the son of Aknonios, from the land of Thessaly, (you won) five times in Nemea, three times the Pythian Games and five times on the Isthmos; no one has ever erected a victory monument at the expense of your poor.
As an athlete, Agias is depicted in a state of nudity, showcasing his athletic prowess as a victorious competitor. He is depicted standing upright, facing the viewer… but he appears restless! The weight distribution between his legs is not sharply differentiated. There is a lack of pronounced contrast between the weight-bearing, straight, right leg and the free, slightly bent, left leg. The statue appears to shift back and forth between the two stances, rather than standing at ease.
Equally restless seems to be the remaining body posture. The right hip, for example, juts out slightly, yet the overall impression is one of verticality. To the same extent, the arms are not ‘hanging’ down relaxed, but rather held slightly away from the athlete’s body, adding to their dynamic quality. The head, smaller in size compared to the statue’s size, rests on a muscular neck, slightly turning to the left. The facial details convey a sense of distinctive personality with a firmly set, sensual mouth, a rather large nose, and small eyes deeply set into the head. The gaze carried by Agias seems directed into space, imparting a certain detachment from the world. Overall, Agias’s torso, arms, legs, neck, and head, are powerfully built, but the body does not appear heavy. The son of Aknonios is a powerful Pankreatist, yet a tall, slender, elegant, thoughtful man.
Is the statue of Agias at Delphi the artistic creation of Lysippos, the great 5th-centurysculptor from Sicyon?
According to modern scholars, Lysippos, the favourite sculptor of Alexander the Great, developed a particular artistic canon aimed at achieving specific effects. The statue of Agias, an idealized 4th century portrait, made long after the athlete’s death as part of the Monument of Daochos II, seems to ‘match’ Lysippos’ distinct artistic ‘effects’. It is characterized by a dynamic, yet ‘restless’ posture, a lean physique, individualized facial features, and a sense of detachment conveyed through the statue’s gaze.
The statue’s connection to Lysippos is further enhanced by an archaeological find at Pharsalos, the birthplace of Agias. A few years back, archaeologists unearthed the base of yet another statue of Agias (the actual statue is lost), which carried an inscription in part nearly identical to the Agias epigram at Delphi. It appears that the Delphi inscription was excerpted from that at Pharsalos, where, at its end, the name of Lysippos, the sculptor, was clearly written.
In conclusion…
The statue of Agias, part of the Monument of Daochos II at Delphi, was erected between the years 337/6 and 333/2 and embodies many artistic characteristics of the Lysippian style. The statue is identified as Agias, son of Aknonios, from an epigram inscribed on its base. This epigram is a copy of the inscription carved on the base of a chronologically older ‘statue’ of Agias discovered in the ancient city of Pharsalos, the birthplace of the athlete. The Pharsalos ‘statue’, commissioned, most probably, by Daochos II as well, believed to be an original creation of the sculptor Lysippos, done in bronze, and dated before 337/6 BC, has sparked many discussions about the creator of the statue of Agias at Delphi. Is it an original work by Lysippos or a copy of his bronze original statue at Pharsalos? Today, it is believed that the Delphic Agias, even if not a faithful replica of Lysippus’ original statue at Pharsalos, belongs to his workshop and, as a work from the 4th century BC, sheds light on the artistic trends of that era.
For a PowerPoint Presentation of the Monument of Daochos II in the Archaeological Museum at Delphi, please… Check HERE!
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