The Cave of Altamira

by ArchaeologyArtPowerpointsPrehistoric ArtSpanish Art
Cave of Altamira, Paleolithic Cave Art, Santillana del Mar, Cantabria, SpainScientists believe the paintings date from c. 14,820 to 13,130 years ago
The original Cave of Altamira is closed to the public, but a Replica Cave and Museum were built nearby in 2001 by Manuel Franquelo and Sven Nebel, faithfully reproducing the Cave and its Art.
Photo Credit: Mariola Salceda

Nestled in the verdant landscapes of northern Spain, The Cave of Altamira stands as a testament to the artistic prowess and ingenuity of our prehistoric ancestors. This remarkable archaeological site often hailed as the “Sistine Chapel of Prehistoric Art,” offers a captivating glimpse into the lives and minds of the people who roamed the Earth over 20,000 years ago.

Discovered in the late 19th century, the cave’s walls are adorned with stunning depictions of bison, deer, horses, and other animals, rendered in vivid hues of red, black, and ochre. These paintings are not merely decorative, they are believed to hold significant cultural and possibly spiritual meaning for the Upper Paleolithic societies that created them.

The Cave of Altamira’s discovery is a tale of serendipity, curiosity, and a bit of luck, intertwining the lives of a local landowner and his inquisitive daughter. In 1868, Modesto Cubillas, a hunter from the Cantabrian region of Spain, stumbled upon the entrance to a cave on the estate of Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola. Though Cubillas mentioned the cave to Sautuola, it wasn’t until a decade later that its true significance was unveiled. Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola, an amateur archaeologist and nobleman with a keen interest in natural history, began exploring the cave in 1875. Initially, he found nothing more than a few animal bones and flint tools, which piqued his interest but did not hint at the artistic treasure that lay within.

The breakthrough came in 1879 when Sautuola returned to the cave with his eight-year-old daughter, María. As the story goes, while her father was busy examining the cave floor, young María wandered off and looked up at the ceiling. She was the first to notice the vivid paintings of bison, which she excitedly called to her father’s attention, describing them as “painted bulls.” Sautuola was astounded by the discovery and immediately recognized the importance of the paintings. He published his findings in 1880, suggesting that the artwork was prehistoric. However, his claims were met with scepticism and ridicule by the scientific community, which doubted the authenticity of such sophisticated art being so ancient. It wasn’t until the early 20th century when other similar cave paintings were discovered across Europe, that the significance of Altamira was universally acknowledged, and the cave received the recognition it deserved.

The art discovered in the Cave of Altamira is a breathtaking collection of Paleolithic paintings and engravings, primarily featuring vivid depictions of animals such as bison, deer, horses, and wild boars. These images, rendered in red, black, and ochre pigments, showcase a remarkable understanding of perspective, movement, and naturalism, with many of the figures appearing lifelike and dynamic. The cave’s ceiling is particularly famous for its polychrome bison, which seem to leap off the rock surface, demonstrating the prehistoric artists’ advanced skill and creativity. This extraordinary art provides a profound insight into the lives, beliefs, and artistic achievements of our ancient ancestors.

In addition to its iconic animal depictions, the Cave of Altamira features non-iconic art that includes abstract shapes and handprints, adding to the cave’s enigmatic and culturally rich tapestry, and offering a different perspective on prehistoric expression. The handprints, created by placing hands against the cave wall and blowing pigment around them, result in striking negative images that convey a direct human presence from millennia ago. These stencilled hands, along with various geometric patterns and symbolic marks, suggest a complex cultural and possibly ritualistic significance. This non-iconic art complements the more detailed animal figures, highlighting the multifaceted nature of the early human artistic endeavour and providing deeper insights into the cognitive and social practices of the Upper Paleolithic inhabitants.

Today, the Cave of Altamira is celebrated as a cornerstone in the study of prehistoric art, offering invaluable insights into the creativity and cultural practices of our distant ancestors. The tale of its discovery remains a fascinating chapter in the annals of archaeology, underscoring the importance of open-mindedness and the unexpected contributions of youthful curiosity.

On the 15th of May, I was fortunate to visit The Replica Cave and Museum of Altamira with my ‘Art Group’ friends and my colleague and dear friend Mariola Salceda from the University of Saragoza… It was truly a once-in-a-lifetime experience, a convergence of history, art, and friendship that left me utterly speechless. It was a journey through time, a profound encounter with humanity’s earliest expressions of creativity, and a moment I shall cherish forever.

For the PowerPoint on Paleolithic Cave Art in Spain, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://www.cultura.gob.es/mnaltamira/en/home.html and https://www.bradshawfoundation.com/spain/altamira/index.php and https://artsandculture.google.com/story/ZAVhI3eo6sPyJA

Constantine the Great

by ArtByzantine ArtByzantine ManuscriptByzantiumMedieval ArtStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus, Constantine and the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, folio 440r, (detail), 879-882 AD, Byzantine Illuminated Manuscript, Illustrated painted Parchment, Bibliothèque nationale de France. (BnF MS grec 510), Paris, France https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BnF_MS_Gr510_folio_440_recto_-_detail_-_Constantine%27s_Vision_and_the_Battle_of_the_Milvian_Bridge.jpg

And while he was thus praying with fervent entreaty, a most marvelous sign appeared to him from heaven, the account of which it might have been hard to believe had it been related by any other person. But since the victorious emperor himself long afterwards declared it to the writer of this history, (1) when he was honored with his acquaintance and society, and confirmed his statement by an oath, who could hesitate to accredit the relation, especially since the testimony of after- time has established its truth? He said that about noon, when the day was already beginning to decline, he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, IN HOC SIGNO VINCES (Conquer by this) …  This phrase is traditionally associated with Constantine the Great and his vision before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312. According to early Christian historian Eusebius, Constantine saw this sign in the sky urging him to adopt the Christian cross as his standard. https://www.u.arizona.edu/~afutrell/404b/euseb%20life%20c.htm

The 9th-century Byzantine illuminated manuscript known as the Homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus, housed in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, is a particularly exquisite example of Byzantine book art and scholarship. Codex Grec 510, features a collection of selected homilies by Gregory of Nazianzus, a central figure in the formulation of the Nicene Creed and a master of Early Christian theology. This manuscript is celebrated for its aesthetic and artistic value, containing numerous illuminations that include elaborate headpieces and initial letters, which are executed in vibrant colours and gold, reflecting the sophisticated, luxurious, and highly skilled artistry of Byzantine manuscript illumination of this period. These visual embellishments not only highlight the sacred content but also serve to guide the reader’s experience of the text. The codex is a testament to the religious devotion, intellectual fervor, and artistic sophistication of Byzantine culture, providing insights into the spiritual and cultural life of the era.

Created in the late 9th century, this fine manuscript stands as a testament to the teachings of Gregory of Nazianzus, a significant theological figure from the fourth century. It was meticulously produced as an elaborate gift for Emperor Basil I, the progenitor of the Macedonian dynasty, courtesy of Patriarch Photios, a renowned scholar of Byzantium. This manuscript is distinguished by its forty-six full-page miniatures; however, less than half of these are directly reflective of the sermons it contains. Most of the artwork instead offers a visual exploration of the Byzantine court during the ninth century. These miniatures are more than mere decorations; they are profound visual essays that provide insights not captured in other contemporary records. Through careful examination, they reveal the unique capabilities of visual art to communicate complex themes and narratives distinctively different from written texts.

The 9th-century Byzantine illuminated manuscript known as the Homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus, housed in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, is a particularly exquisite example of Byzantine book art and scholarship. Codex Grec 510, features a collection of selected Homilies by Gregory of Nazianzus, a central figure in the formulation of the Nicene Creed and a master of Early Christian theology. This manuscript is celebrated for its aesthetic and artistic value, containing numerous illuminations that include elaborate headpieces and initial letters, which are executed in vibrant colours and gold, reflecting the sophisticated, luxurious, and highly skilled artistry of Byzantine manuscript illumination of this period. These visual embellishments not only highlight the sacred content but also serve to guide the reader’s experience of the text. The codex is a testament to the religious devotion, intellectual fervour, and artistic sophistication of Byzantine culture, providing insights into the spiritual and cultural life of the era.

Created in the late 9th century, this fine manuscript stands as a testament to the teachings of Gregory of Nazianzus, a significant theological figure from the fourth century. It was meticulously produced as an elaborate gift for Emperor Basil I, the progenitor of the Macedonian dynasty, courtesy of Patriarch Photios, a renowned scholar of Byzantium. This manuscript is distinguished by its forty-six full-page miniatures; however, less than half of these are directly reflective of the sermons it contains. Most of the artwork instead offers a visual exploration of the Byzantine court during the ninth century. These miniatures are more than mere decorations; they are profound visual essays that provide insights not captured in other contemporary records. Through careful examination, they reveal the unique capabilities of visual art to communicate complex themes and narratives distinctively different from written texts.

Homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus, Constantine’s vision and the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, folio 440r, 879-882 AD, Byzantine Illuminated Manuscript, Illustrated painted Parchment, Bibliothèque nationale de France. (BnF MS grec 510), Paris, France https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B5%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%93%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%9D%CE%B1%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B6%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%8D

Folio 440r of the Homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus presents a captivating artistic depiction of a pivotal historical moment: Emperor Constantine the Great at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. This illustration is not just a simple portrayal; it is imbued with historical and symbolic significance. The scene vividly captures the dramatic and miraculous nature of the battle, which occurred in 312 AD near Rome. According to historical accounts, Constantine, on the eve of the conflict, experienced a vision that led him to adopt the Christian symbol of the Cross and the Chi-Rho on his soldiers’ shields, a decisive factor attributed to his victory. This moment is often considered a turning point for Christianity, marking its transition from persecution to imperial endorsement.

The artistry of the miniature depicting Constantine’s victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge transcends simple historical documentation, embodying the theological and political ideals of the Byzantine Empire at the time of the manuscript’s creation. This illustration is set against a two-tone green ground beneath a blue backdrop, where the background features are minimalist, confined only to essential narrative elements such as the Milvian Bridge itself or a monochromatic landscape. The figures, stocky with disproportionately large heads, are rendered in a style that favours either a frontal gaze or a pure profile, even as more complex poses are attempted.

Through its detailed iconography and thoughtful composition, the miniature communicates both the earthly and heavenly endorsement of Constantine’s rule and victory, providing viewers with a layered interpretation of history that is infused with divine significance. This approach creates a visual narrative that not only highlights the pivotal moment but also emphasizes themes interwoven with the broader religious and imperial ethos of the era. The strategic simplification of background elements and the stylized depiction of figures enhance the focus on the central themes, effectively marrying form with content in a portrayal rich with symbolic meaning.

For a Student Activity inspired by folio 440r of the Homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus, which depicts Constantine the Great and the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: Vision and Meaning in 9th-Century Byzantium, Image as Exegesis in the Homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus by Leslie Brubaker https://www.academia.edu/49490426/Vision_and_Meaning_in_9th_Century_Byzantium_Image_as_Exegesis_in_the_Homilies_of_Gregory_of_Nazianzus and https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b84522082/f891

Pandora and Epimetheus

by 17th century ArtArtMannerismPowerpointsRenaissanceRenaissance Art
Attributed to El Greco – Domenikos Theotokopoulos
Pandora and Epimetheus, 1600 – 1610, Polychromed, Carved Wood, Height: 43 cm, Prado Museum, Madrid, Spain
https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/pandora/86a6b73f-8ef3-4132-aa68-4648a27a4b6a

In Greek mythology, Pandora was the first woman on Earth. Created by the god Hephaestus at the request of Zeus, her creation was part of a divine punishment for humanity. This punishment was in retaliation for Prometheus, a Titan, who defied the gods by stealing fire and giving it to mankind. Endowed with gifts from each god and made irresistibly alluring to humans, Pandora was given in marriage to Epimetheus, the brother of Prometheus. Despite warnings from Prometheus not to accept any gifts from Zeus, Epimetheus accepted her. Pandora and Epimetheus thus became the first human couple. However, disaster loomed nearby. Driven by curiosity, Pandora opened a box she was forbidden to touch and released into the world all sorrows and death-bringers. Only Hope remained, trapped under the box’s lid, narrowly missing escape when Pandora hastily closed the lid. This calamity unfolded exactly as Zeus, the cloud-gatherer, had planned. Do Pandora’s actions illustrate the profound and often unintended consequences of human curiosity and disobedience?

Domenicos Theotokopoulos, known as El Greco, was born in 1541 in Crete, which was then part of the Republic of Venice. Initially trained in the Byzantine tradition of icon painting, he moved to Venice around 1567, where he adopted elements of the Venetian Renaissance style under the influence of painters like Titian and Tintoretto. Seeking greater opportunities, El Greco relocated to Rome in 1570 and later moved to Toledo, Spain, in 1577, where he spent the remainder of his life. In Toledo, El Greco developed a distinctive style characterized by elongated figures and vibrant, expressive use of colour and light, often infused with dramatic spirituality. Despite his critical reception being mixed during his lifetime, El Greco is now celebrated as a precursor to both the Expressionist and Cubist movements, profoundly influencing the evolution of Western art. He died in 1614 in Toledo.

El Greco’s art is distinguished by its unique blend of Byzantine and Western painting traditions, resulting in a highly personal and spiritual style that pushed the boundaries of the Mannerist period. His figures are elongated and anatomically exaggerated, often imbued with a sense of spiritual intensity and inner turmoil that seems to stretch towards the divine. He used unconventional, vivid colour palettes and bold, almost expressionistic brush strokes that imbued his compositions with a dramatic, almost otherworldly quality. His treatment of light is particularly notable. It often seems to emanate from within the figures themselves, highlighting their ethereal and transcendent nature. This handling of form, colour, and light not only enhances the emotional depth and mystical atmosphere of his paintings but also foreshadows the emotional expressiveness of the Expressionist movement and the structural experimentation of Cubism, making El Greco a pivotal figure in the transition from the Renaissance ideals of harmony and proportion to the more subjective and distorted approaches of modern art.

The unique statues of Pandora and Epimetheus housed in the Prado Museum hold significant artistic and stylistic importance as they represent a rare excursion into sculpture by an artist renowned primarily for his paintings. These works are critical for understanding El Greco’s artistic language in a three-dimensional form, showcasing his ability to translate the intense emotionality and spiritual expressiveness characteristic of his paintings into sculpture. Stylistically, these statues exemplify his signature approach of elongation and dramatic posturing, traits that underscore his departure from conventional Renaissance forms and anticipate the emotional intensity of the Baroque period. The representation of such complex mythological figures in sculpture by El Greco adds a profound layer to the interpretation of his artistic legacy, demonstrating his innovative approach to volume, movement, and the human form, which challenged and expanded the aesthetic boundaries of his time.

Considering El Greco’s unique interpretive style and his known penchant for blending the spiritual with the human form, in what ways might his statues of a nude man and a nude woman be seen as symbolic representations of Pandora and Epimetheus? How do these sculptures reflect the themes of innocence, curiosity, and the inevitable consequences of human actions as depicted in the myth? …The woman removed the heavy lid of the jar with her own hands, and / driven by her own thoughts, unleashed sorrows for men, death-bringers. / Hope alone remained in its unbreakable home, / caught underneath the lip of the jar. Its escape / was only a short flight away, but, just in time, she slammed the lid down. / All according to the plan of aegis-bearing, cloud-gathering Zeus… https://pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca/myths/chapter/lesson-5-primary-readings-prometheus-and-pandora/

For a PowerPoint Presentation titled, Domenikos Theotokopoulos, 10 Masterpieces, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/pandora/86a6b73f-8ef3-4132-aa68-4648a27a4b6a and https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/epimetheus/8abbfd9f-27f9-44b6-bbc6-e19854e7a69c

The Three Ages of the Woman

by 20th century ArtArtArt NouveauPowerpoints
Gustav Klimt, Austrian Artist, 1862–1918
The Three Ages of the Woman, 1905, Oil on Canvas, 180 × 180 cm, Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Moderna e Contemporanea, Rome Italy https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Klimt_-_Die_drei_Lebensalter_der_Frau.jpeg

Presenting the painting The Three Ages of the Woman by Gustav Klimt is my humble contribution to Mother’s Day!

Gustav Klimt (1862–1918), an Austrian symbolist painter, was a pivotal figure in the Viennese Secession movement and a prominent member of the Art Nouveau movement. Renowned for his ornate and sensual style, Klimt’s work often explored themes of love, sexuality, and the human condition, characterized by elaborate compositions, intricate patterns, and rich symbolism. He is best known for his iconic paintings such as “The Kiss” and “The Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I.” Klimt’s artistic vision transcended conventional norms, influencing generations of artists and leaving an indelible mark on the history of art.

Gustav Klimt’s artistic style is characterized by its ornate and sensual qualities, marked by intricate patterns, rich symbolism, and a vivid colour palette. Influenced by the Art Nouveau movement and the Viennese Secession, Klimt’s works often feature decorative elements inspired by Byzantine art, Egyptian motifs, and Japanese woodblock prints. His compositions are meticulously crafted, with every detail contributing to the overall aesthetic harmony of the piece. Klimt’s exploration of themes such as love, sexuality, and the human psyche is evident in his paintings, which often depict intimate moments and the complexities of human relationships.

One of Klimt’s distinctive traits is his use of gold leaf, which he employed to stunning effect in many of his works, symbolizing spiritual and material wealth, as well as the transcendence of earthly concerns. This shimmering gold backdrop serves to elevate his subjects, lending them an otherworldly quality and reinforcing the ethereal nature of his art. Additionally, Klimt’s portrayal of the female form is notable for its sensuality and eroticism, as he often depicted women with flowing hair draped in luxurious fabrics, evoking a sense of both beauty and mystery. Overall, Klimt’s artistic characteristics reflect a profound exploration of the human experience, expressed through a visually captivating and emotionally resonant aesthetic.

Gustav Klimt’s painting The Three Ages of Woman, completed in 1905, encapsulates the artist’s exploration of life, death, and the passage of time. The painting shows a little girl in the protective arms of her mother, while beside them an old woman stands with a bowed head. The infant represents the beginning of life and the promise of new beginnings, the mature woman, lost in contemplation, symbolizes the complexities and responsibilities of adulthood, and lastly, the elderly woman, signifies the culmination of life’s journey. Depicting a woman in three distinct stages of life—youth, maturity, and old age—the painting symbolizes the cyclical nature of existence and the inevitability of mortality. Through his masterful use of colour, pattern, and symbolism, Klimt imbues the painting with a sense of timeless beauty and existential depth, inviting viewers to reflect on the fleeting nature of human existence and the enduring cycle of life and death.

Completed in 1905, Gustav Klimt’s The Three Ages of Woman swiftly gathered attention, being presented at the 2nd Exhibition of the Deutscher Kunstlerbund in Berlin the same year. Its acclaim only burgeoned when showcased at the Venice Biennale in 1910, captivating audiences with its profound symbolism and exquisite execution. Its journey continued as the painting was selected for display at the International Exhibition in Rome in 1911, where Klimt’s artistic prowess earned him the gold medal in the Austrian pavilion. Housed in the newly established National Gallery of Modern Art in Rome, The Three Ages of Woman remains a testament to Klimt’s refined elegance and enduring fame, securing its place as one of the great allegorical paintings of art history.

For a PowerPoint, titled 12 Painting by Gustav Klint, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://artsandculture.google.com/story/gustav-klimt-the-three-ages/8QVBXs2pR3BlKg

Head of Goddess Tyche from Corinth

by Uncategorized
Head of Goddess Tyche (Fortune) with a mural crown, the personification of the city of Corinth, late 1st century AD, Marble, Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth, Greece – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, Acropolis Museum, February 2024

The beautiful Head of Goddess Tyche from Corinth takes us back on a journey to Roman Greece.  Displayed as part of the exhibition titled ‘ΝοΗΜΑΤΑ’: Personifications and Allegories from Antiquity to Today at the Acropolis Museum, this Roman masterwork travelled to Athens from the Archaeological Museum of Corinth, offering a unique opportunity to explore the multifaceted world of art and personifications.

The Head of Tyche, as a beloved symbol of fortune and protection for cities, was part of the Exhibition’s 5th Unit of ‘Institutions,’ where personifications and allegories that represent communal—not individual—human activities were presented. These are the activities of organized societies characterized by homogeneity and unity, embodying public, social, political, and civic life. This Exhibition Unit featured not only Tyche but also Themis, Justice, and Injustice, Eunomia (Order), Hybris and Punishment, Nemesis, along with personifications of the City, Demos, Senate, Gerousia, along with various Processions and Ceremonies. Each piece offered a glimpse into the institutions governing human societies, providing context to how the ancients envisioned the forces that shaped their world.

My favourite sculpture of Tyche dates from the 1st century AD and comes from Corinth! Let’s explore the ‘who’, ‘which’, ‘how’, and ‘what’ of this amazing sculpture by posing some questions!

Head of Goddess Tyche (Fortune) with a mural crown, the personification of the city of Corinth, late 1st century AD, Marble, Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth, Greece https://www.lifo.gr/culture/eikastika/noimata-i-nea-ekthesi-sto-moyseio-tis-akropolis

Who is Tyche? Tyche, the daughter of the Titans Tethys and Oceanus was a significant figure in both Greek and Roman mythology, embodying the concept of fortune—both good and bad—and destiny. She was revered as the tutelary deity who governed the fortune and prosperity of a city, its destiny, and the personal fortunes of its inhabitants.

How did the Greeks and the Romans perceive her? For the Greeks, Tyche, the daughter of the Titans Tethys and Oceanus, originally emerged as a relatively minor deity, but her importance grew over time, especially during the Hellenistic period following the conquests of Alexander the Great. In a world where cities could rise and fall quickly due to war, economic change, and political upheaval, Tyche began to be worshipped as a powerful protector of cities and a bringer of fortune. Greek cities would often depict Tyche with symbols of plenty, like a cornucopia, and sometimes featured elements like a mural crown (representing city walls) or a rudder (symbolizing navigation or control over fate). She was also occasionally depicted with a wheel, representing the unpredictability of fortune.

For the Romans, Tyche was assimilated into Roman culture as Fortuna, who became an immensely popular deity in her own right. The Romans expanded on the concept of Tyche/Fortuna, creating various aspects of the goddess to represent different types of luck and fortunes, such as Fortuna Redux (bringing one safely home), Fortuna Augusta (fortune of the emperor), and Fortuna Privata (personal fortune). Temples and shrines to Fortuna were common in Rome and throughout the Roman Empire, reflecting her integral role in both public and private life. Roman depictions of Fortuna included similar symbols as Tyche, with the addition of the wheel and the globe, underscoring her control over the circular nature of fate and the vastness of the empire.

In both cultures, Tyche/Fortuna was more than just a symbol of arbitrary events; she represented the idea that life’s fortunes are beyond human control, yet intimately involved in the everyday workings of both cities and individuals. Her worship indicates a kind of resignation to the unpredictability of life, but also an attempt to appease and gain favour from the forces believed to govern it.

Black and White 1932 Photo of a Marble Head of Tyche, the Fortune of the City of Corinth – Photo Credit: American School of Classical Studies, Athens, Greece

What was the symbolic role of the Heads of Goddess Tyche during the Roman Empire? The Heads of Goddess Tyche, also known as Tyche Heads or City-Goddess Heads, were a common motif in the Roman Empire. These sculptures typically depicted the head of Tyche adorned with various symbols or attributes that represented the city she personified. One of the most distinctive features of these sculptures is the city mural crown, where the city’s walls were depicted as a crown adorning the head of Tyche. This imagery served not only as religious and artistic symbols but also as expressions of civic pride and identity. They reinforced the idea that the fate and prosperity of a city were closely tied to the favour of the gods, particularly Tyche, and they were often placed in prominent locations such as city squares or temples.

Head of Goddess Tyche (Fortune) with a mural crown, the personification of the city of Corinth, late 1st century AD, Marble, Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth, Greece – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, Acropolis Museum, February 2024
Head of Goddess Tyche (Fortune) with a mural crown, the personification of the city of Corinth, late 1st century AD, Marble, Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth, Greece – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, Acropolis Museum, February 2024

Which is my favourite Head of Goddess Tyche? It is a 1st century AD fine crystalled white marble piece, discovered in Temple E, in ancient Corinth. Some scholars attribute it to Octavia, the sister of Augustus, although modern scholars have offered alternative suggestions.

Head of Goddess Tyche (Fortune) with a mural crown, the personification of the city of Corinth, late 1st century AD, Marble, Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth, Greece – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, Acropolis Museum, February 2024

How can this remarkable Head of Tyche be described? This is the striking portrayal, steeped in symbolism and artistry, of an almost life-sized head of an idealized woman. Wearing a mural crown adorned with a central gate, towers, slit windows and meticulously crafted coursed masonry, the woman’s head emanates a regal aura befitting its divine subject. Her hair, meticulously detailed with two rows of tight curls featuring drilled centers, gracefully frames her oval face from the forehead to the back of her ears, with a single lock before each ear and shorter locks behind the left ear sculpted in low relief. The top of her head exhibits intricate craftsmanship, worked with delicate precision. Her countenance, marked by a broad forehead and a narrow chin, is characterized by sharp brow ridges and upper lids, lightly incised irises, and drilled nostrils, evoking a sense of lifelike realism. The slightly open mouth, revealing a tongue, adds a touch of dynamism to the serene visage. Though the face is worked smoothly, it lacks a polished finish, with faint traces of rasping evident on the neck, underscoring the meticulous yet organic nature of its creation. This remarkable artefact not only offers a glimpse into the artistic mastery of ancient Corinthian craftsmen but also invites contemplation of the cultural and religious significance imbued within its form.

For a Student Activity, please… Check HERE!

Corinth Notebook Page: NB 128, spread 8 (pp. 5 – 6) https://corinth.ascsa.net

Bibliography: https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/noemata-exhibition and https://www.jstor.org/stable/147882  and https://www.jstor.org/stable/40514500?read-now=1&seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents The Goddess Tyche by Susan B. Matheson, Yale University Art Gallery Bulletin, An Obsession with Fortune: Tyche in Greek and Roman Art (1994), pp. 18-33 (16 pages)

Agnus Dei by Francisco de Zurbarán

by 17th century ArtArtBaroquePowerpoints
Francisco de Zurbarán, Spanish Artist,1598 – 1664
Agnus Dei, 1635 – 1640, Oil on Canvas, 37.3×62 cm, Prado Museum, Spain https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/agnus-dei/795b841a-ec81-4d10-bd8b-0c7a870e327b

The term Agnus Dei carries significance in both Christian liturgy and art, emanating from Latin to mean Lamb of God. Its usage and implications span religious, cultural, and historical contexts. The connection between Agnus Dei and Easter is central to Christian symbolism and deeply interwoven with the themes of sacrifice, redemption, and renewal inherent in the Easter celebration. The painting of Agnus Dei by Francisco de Zurbarán, is I believe one of the finest examples.

In Christian art, the Agnus Dei symbolizes Jesus’ sacrificial death and resurrection. This symbol is often depicted as a lamb carrying a cross or with a halo around its head, sometimes holding a flag, representing victory over death. This imagery has been a significant motif in Christian iconography since the early centuries of Christianity, appearing in mosaics, sculptures, paintings, and liturgical objects.

Francisco de Zurbarán, a Spanish painter of the Baroque period, is renowned for his deeply religious works that often depict monastic life, still lifes, and themes of Christian mysticism with a dramatic interplay of light and shadow. Zurbarán’s painting titled Agnus Dei, dating from around 1635-1640 is a fine example of his style. In this work, the artist presents a bound merino lamb between eight and twelve months old, lying on its side positioned against a dark, undefined background on top of a grey table. The lamb is presented with a remarkable degree of realism, from the texture of its wool to the serene expression on its face, despite the foreboding sense of its imminent sacrifice. This powerful image serves as a direct visual representation of the Lamb of God as referenced in Christian theology, symbolizing Jesus Christ’s sacrifice for the sins of humanity.

The elements of Zurbarán’s painting, the bound state of the lamb, and the overall somber tone evoke the Passion of Christ. The lamb, an innocent creature, becomes a poignant symbol of Christ’s submission to the crucifixion and his role as the sacrificial lamb who takes away the sins of the world. The use of chiaroscuro, or the contrast between light and dark, highlights the purity and innocence of the lamb, making it stand out against the dark background, which adds to the painting’s emotional depth and spiritual solemnity.

Zurbarán’s focus on this theme aligns with the Counter-Reformation period’s emphasis on religious renewal and the visual expression of Catholic doctrine. His works are celebrated for their ability to convey profound religious concepts with intense emotional weight and a deep sense of piety. Through his depiction of the Agnus Dei, Zurbarán invites contemplation on themes of innocence, sacrifice, and redemption, providing a visual meditation on the Christian faith and the mystery of Christ’s sacrificial love.

Francisco de Zurbarán’s engagement with the Agnus Dei theme extended beyond a singular masterpiece, manifesting in no fewer than six paintings, each with its iconographic nuances, highly sought after, presumably by private patrons. The allure of these pieces was such that in 1724, Antonio Palomino, both painter and writer, recounted the pride of an art aficionado in Seville who treasured a Zurbarán lamb, “painted from life,” more than a hundred actual sheep. The presented Museo del Prado example stands out as the epitome of Zurbarán’s artistry, marrying unparalleled technical skill, vivid descriptiveness, and poignant expressiveness with a layer of emotional depth considered unmatched by its counterparts. Art historians concur that this version emerged in the finest moment of Zurbarán’s creative period, specifically pinpointed to between 1635 and 1640, showcasing the artist at the pinnacle of his powers.

Francisco de Zurbarán (1598–1664), hailed from Fuente de Cantos, Extremadura, is an important figure of the Spanish Baroque period. As a painter, Zurbaráns is known for his profound religiosity, meticulous attention to detail, and masterful use of chiaroscuro. His artistic journey blossomed in Seville, where he established his workshop and became a pivotal figure in the city’s vibrant art scene, often being referred to as the ‘Spanish Caravaggio’ due to his dramatic interplay of light and shadow. His oeuvre predominantly explores themes of Christian mysticism and monastic life, with works that depict saints, martyrs, and biblical narratives imbued with a stark realism and emotional depth. Among his most celebrated works are the series for the Monastery of Guadalupe, the altarpieces for the San Pablo El Real, and his poignant renditions of the Agnus Dei. Zurbarán’s ability to blend spiritual intensity with lifelike representation won him the admiration of his contemporaries and a significant commission from King Philip IV. Despite facing financial difficulties in his later years, Zurbarán’s legacy endured, influencing not only the trajectory of Spanish art but also leaving a lasting impact on the broader tapestry of Baroque painting.

For a PowerPoint Presentation of 10 Masterpieces by Francisco de Zurbarán, please… Check HERE!

The Lilies of the Valley Fabergé Egg

by 19th century ArtArtArt NouveauJewelryStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
House of Fabergé, Saint-Petersburg, Workmaster: Mikhail Perkhin, Miniaturist: Johannes Zeingraph, Icon painter: Mikhail Dikarev
The Lilies of the Valley Fabergé Egg, 1898, Gold, Ruby, Rose-cut diamonds, Pearls, Ivory, Glass, Technics Casting, Embossing, Engraving, Guilloche enamel, Watercolor, Gilding, Height: 15,1 cm (opened: 19,9 cm), Fabergé Museum, Shuvalov Palace of Saint-Petersburg, Russia https://fabergemuseum.ru/en/collections/collection-highlights/lilies-of-the-valley-easter-egg

In the realm of art and beauty, William Blake, with his evocative poetry, reminds us on the one hand that… The modest Rose puts forth a thorn, / The humble sheep a threat’ning horn: / While the Lily white shall in love delight, / Nor a thorn nor a threat stain her beauty bright. Echoing this celebration of beauty and purity, on the other hand, Peter Carl Fabergé brings to life the unparalleled elegance of the lily in one of his most celebrated creations: The Lilies of the Valley Fabergé Easter Egg. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lilly_(poem)

Peter Carl Fabergé was a master jeweller and goldsmith of the Russian Empire, renowned for his exquisite and intricate craftsmanship, particularly in the creation of the famed Fabergé eggs. Born in Saint Petersburg in 1846 into a family of French Huguenot descent, Fabergé inherited his father’s jewelry business and elevated it to extraordinary heights of artistic and commercial success. He became most famous for the series of elaborately decorated Easter eggs he created for the Russian imperial family from 1885 to 1917. These eggs, crafted from precious metals and gemstones, were feats of engineering and artistry, containing surprises such as miniatures, clockwork birds, or ships. Fabergé’s work extended beyond these eggs to include a vast range of jewelry and luxury objects, admired for their beauty and precision. Despite the turmoil of the Russian Revolution, which eventually led him into exile, Fabergé’s legacy endures, symbolizing the pinnacle of craftsmanship and the opulence of pre-revolutionary Russia.

The Imperial Easter Eggs by Fabergé represent a highpoint in the world of art and craftsmanship, a series of 50 opulent, jewelled Eggs created for the Russian imperial family from 1885 to 1917. Commissioned initially by Tsar Alexander III as an Easter gift for his wife, Tsarina Maria Feodorovna, the tradition continued under his son, Nicholas II, who gifted them to his mother and wife. Each Egg, meticulously crafted from gold, enamel, and precious gems, concealed a unique surprise, ranging from miniature replicas of the imperial regalia to intricate mechanical objects, showcasing the unparalleled skill of Fabergé and his craftsmen. Beyond their artistic merit, these eggs held personal significance for the imperial family, commemorating events and anniversaries, and have become symbols of the extravagance of the Romanov dynasty and the lost opulence of Imperial Russia. Today, the surviving eggs are treasured as masterpieces of decorative art, housed in museums and private collections around the world, embodying the legacy of Fabergé’s genius and the enduring fascination with the Romanovs.

House of Fabergé Easter Eggs in the Fabergé Museum, Shuvalov Palace of Saint-Petersburg, Russia https://russiable.com/faberge-museum-st-petersburg/

The Lilies of the Valley Fabergé Easter Egg, crafted in 1898, is the opulent gift given to Empress Alexandra Fyodorovna by Russia’s last Tsar, Nicholas II. This exquisite piece, designed by the renowned jeweler Peter Carl Fabergé, is adorned with translucent pink guilloché enamel on a gold base, vertical strips of rose-cut diamonds and pearl lilies of the valley elegantly accented with diamonds among green enamelled leaves. The Easter Egg is topped with a diamond and ruby-set Imperial crown, that hides a surprise, three miniature watercolour portraits, framed in diamonds, of Nicholas II and the two daughters of the royal family, Olga and Tatiana, in the form of a trefoil that opens when a pearl button is pushed. The Easter Egg is supported by cabriolet legs of graceful gold leaves adorned with pearls and sinuous lines of rose-cut diamonds.

House of Fabergé, Saint-Petersburg, Workmaster: Mikhail Perkhin, Miniaturist: Johannes Zeingraph, Icon painter: Mikhail Dikarev
The Lilies of the Valley Fabergé Egg (detail), 1898, Gold, Ruby, Rose-cut diamonds, Pearls, Ivory, Glass, Technics Casting, Embossing, Engraving, Guilloche enamel, Watercolor, Gilding, Height: 15,1 cm (opened: 19,9 cm), Fabergé Museum, Shuvalov Palace of Saint-Petersburg, Russia https://fabergemuseum.ru/en/collections/collection-highlights/lilies-of-the-valley-easter-egg

Lilies of the valley, symbols of purity, youth, and innocence, were the favourite flowers of Alexandra Feodorovna, who avoided “any kind of pomp” and dedicated almost all her time to her husband and children. They were also a favourite ‘motif’ of the Art Nouveau style, a movement that flourished in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by its focus on organic forms, intricate designs, and a harmonious integration of art with everyday objects. This Easter Egg exhibits several key characteristics of Art Nouveau, such as its graceful and asymmetrical form, which mimics the natural curves of the lilies of the valley. The use of enamel, a hallmark of Art Nouveau craftsmanship, adds vibrant colour and depth to the piece, while the incorporation of pearls and diamonds accentuates its luxurious appeal. Furthermore, the attention to detail, from the delicate placement of each gemstone to the subtle nuances in the design, reflects the meticulous craftsmanship synonymous with the Art Nouveau movement.

Renowned for its elegance and the intricacy of its design, the Lilies of the Valley Fabergé Easter Egg, encapsulates not just the unmatched skill of its creators but also the rich historical and emotional depth of the era it represents, making it a timeless testament to both the artistic innovations of its time and the enduring legacy of the Romanov dynasty. It epitomizes the Art Nouveau movement through its embodiment of organic beauty, exquisite craftsmanship, and the seamless fusion of art with functionality, while simultaneously serving as a symbol of imperial opulence, intricate artistry, and the poignant narrative of a bygone era.

As we welcome the 1st of May and with the Greek Orthodox Easter upon our threshold, I extend heartfelt Wishes to all for Health, Happiness, and the Warmth of shared moments with loved ones. Let the Lilies of the Valley Fabergé Easter Egg, an exquisite artefact that captures the essence of beauty and tradition, stand as a poignant reminder of the enduring spirit of rejuvenation, hope, and rebirth that Easter brings to many around the world.

For suggested Student Activities, please, Check… HERE!

Palm Sunday – Κυριακή των Βαΐων

by ArtManuscriptsMedieval ArtPowerpoints
Ethiopian Illuminated Gospel, Palm Sunday, late 14th–early 15th century, from the Amhara region, Parchment, Wood, Tempera, Ink, 41.9 x 28.6 x 10.2 cm, the MET, NY, USA https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/317618

Heartfelt wishes for the Orthodox Holy Week of Easter ahead of us, and today’s Palm Sunday – Κυριακή των Βαΐων … The next day the great crowd that had come to the festival heard that Jesus was coming to Jerusalem. So they took branches of palm trees and went out to meet him, shouting, / “Hosanna! / Blessed is the one who comes in the name of the Lord – the King of Israel!” (John 12.12-16)

Nestled within the rugged embrace of Ethiopia’s highlands, the Amhara region emerges as a tapestry of cultural richness and natural beauty. Here, ancient traditions interlace with modern aspirations, creating a mosaic of resilience and vibrancy. From the shores of Lake Tana, where ancient monasteries guard age-old treasures, to the majestic peaks of the Simien Mountains, Amhara captivates the scholar with its diverse landscapes and rich heritage.

Within the intricate tapestry of Ethiopian history, the Amhara people emerge as custodians of a cultural legacy shaped by millennia of dynamic interaction and enduring tradition. This rich heritage finds its roots in the ancient kingdom of Aksum, where the fusion of indigenous groups, Arabian emigrants, and Alexandrian scholarship gave rise to a civilization that would shape the course of East African history. It was here, in the fertile highlands, that Christianity took root under the patronage of King Ezana, marking the dawn of a new era defined by faith and enlightenment. As the Ethiopian state expanded its influence, monasteries blossomed as centers of knowledge, beacons of learning and guardians of tradition. Through the ebb and flow of time, the Amhara people have remained steadfast in their commitment to preserving this rich cultural heritage, embodying the spirit of resilience and continuity that defines Ethiopia’s vibrant tapestry of diversity.

Within the sacred confines of the Ethiopian Orthodox Monasteries, the Gospel text reigned supreme, its words were revered as divine guidance for the faithful, and their illuminations were considered sacred windows into the divine narrative. It thus comes as no surprise that Illuminated Manuscripts were pivotal elements of Ethiopian liturgy. They were commissioned by esteemed patrons, to stand as testaments to both royal prestige and the scholarly ability of monastic scriptoria. One such Manuscript, the Ethiopian Illuminated Gospel in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum in New York, is a testament to the intertwining of faith, patronage, and artistry.

Dating back to the 14th century, at the peak of Ethiopian civilization, this opulent manuscript encapsulates the essence of Ethiopian Medieval Christian Art, bringing together Byzantine influences with indigenous flair. Within its pages, written in Classical Ethiopic or Ge’ez, this illuminated manuscript stands as one of merely thirteen manuscripts that defied the onslaught of Islamic destruction during the tumultuous 16th century. Its survival underscores its singular importance as a cherished artefact of Ethiopian heritage, preserving a vibrant chapter of artistic and religious expression.

Hailing from a monastic center nestled in the serene Tana region, the Ethiopian Manuscript unfolds as a masterpiece of illumination. Adorned with twenty full-page miniatures portraying vivid scenes from the New Testament, meticulously crafted portraits of the Evangelist, and eleven illuminated Canon Tables, this manuscript offers a captivating glimpse into the Christian narrative, meticulously rendered by the hands of at least two skilled artists. These artisans, adept in their craft, ingeniously adapted Byzantine influences into a distinctly Ethiopian style, characterized by vibrant hues and striking graphic motifs. Within its pages, figural subject matter intertwines with rich passages of abstract patterns, weaving a tapestry of spiritual and artistic expression. Delicate decorative frames, embracing illuminated pages, showcase bands of coloured lines interwoven with intricate geometric designs, each stroke a testament to the artisans’ mastery and the manuscript’s enduring allure.

My favourite scene from the New Testament is The Entry of Christ into Jerusalem. Inspired by the Byzantine iconographic tradition, but infused with an Ethiopian ‘twist,’ the Palm Sunday scene is rendered in the local expressive idiom. Human forms are portrayed as static and solemn, schematically rendered like pillars of faith, with lines boldly presented and colours that are warm and inviting. Blending solemnity with warmth, the Ethiopian ‘tableau’, not only captivates the viewer but also eloquently encapsulates the unique spiritual and cultural narrative of the Ethiopian Christian tradition.

For a PowerPoint inspired by the Ethiopian Illuminated Gospel in the MET, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Byzantium_Faith_and_Power_1261_1557 page 441 and https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/317618

The Dolphin Frieze from the Mycenaean Acropolis of Gla

by Ancient Greek ArtArchaeologyArtBronze Age ArtGreek ArtMycenaean ArtStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Dolphin Frieze, Second half of the 13th century BC, Fresco, from the Mycenaean Acropolis of Gla in Boeotia, Archaeological Museum of Thebes, Greece – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, February 19, 2024

On February 19, 2024, I fulfilled a long-awaited wish by visiting the Archaeological Museum of Thebes, one of Greece’s most significant archaeological museums. The collections, some of which are rare or unique, have been on my bucket list for quite some time. These artefacts, originating from excavations across Boeotia, span from the Paleolithic era to post-Byzantine times, providing a comprehensive view of the region’s cultural history. The Dolphin Frieze from the Mycenaean Acropolis of Gla was at the top of my list; seeing it in person was a moment of sheer delight and fulfilment.

The Mycenaean period is of profound significance in both art and history, acting as a vital cultural link between the Bronze Age civilizations of the Aegean and the classical world of ancient Greece. Artefacts from this era, ranging from architecture to fresco painting and pottery, illuminate the emergence of distinct artistic styles and techniques that greatly influenced classical Greek artistry. Mycenaean builders demonstrated their prowess through the construction of grand palaces, robust fortifications, and imposing tombs, showcasing advanced architectural and engineering capabilities. Their vibrant fresco paintings, characterized by bold depictions of figures, animals, and geometric patterns, stand as a testament to their artistic abilities. Moreover, the Mycenaean civilization played a pivotal role in shaping the socio-political landscape of ancient Greece, laying the groundwork for the development of Greek culture and identity.

The Acropolis of Gla, Boeotia, Greece https://www.mthv.gr/en/beyond-the-museum/tour-in-boeotia/the-mycenaean-acropolis-at-glas/
Model of the Archaeological site of Gla, Archaeological Museum of Thebes, Greece
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gla_-_Modell_of_archaeological_site.JPG

The least known of all Mycenaean Palaces is probably that of Gla in Central Greece. Perched atop a rugged hill, the Mycenaean Acropolis of Gla is a site of historical and archaeological significance dating back to the Late Bronze Age. This fortified settlement, strategically positioned on the Boeotian plain jutted into Lake Kopais (now drained) or formed an island within it. It served as a vital center of the Mycenaean civilization, showcasing the architectural prowess and strategic foresight of its ancient inhabitants. With its imposing Cyclopean Walls, about 3 m thick, and 2.8 km long, enclosing about 235,000 square meters of land, and commanding views, the Acropolis of Gla stands as a testament to the military and cultural achievements of the Mycenaeans, offering invaluable insights into their society, economy, and interactions within the broader Aegean world.

The Acropolis of Gla is famously associated with the ambitious endeavour to drain Lake Kopais, a feat considered unparalleled in Bronze Age antiquity, highlighting the advanced technical knowledge possessed by Mycenaean engineers. It is also known for its sheer magnitude and complexity. Encircled by robust Cyclopean Walls featuring four gates constructed from imposing stone blocks, Gla reigns as the largest fortified Mycenaean Acropolis within Greek territory. Less known, but equally important is the site’s residential area, a sprawling L-shaped edifice, often hailed as a ‘Palace’, and situated in the site’s northern expanse. Built atop an engineered plateau, this ‘Palace’ or, Melathron’, unfolds into three distinct sections, featuring a layout reminiscent of the renowned Megaron structures found in ancient centers like Tiryns, Mycenae, and Pylos. However, the absence of hallmark Mycenaean Palace elements, specifically a “throne room”, a circular hearth, and a “bathroom”, raises questions about its classification as a fully-fledged Mycenaean Megaron.

Among the buildings’ debris, archaeologists discovered as early as 1893, evidence of a wastewater system, unique clay roof tiles suggesting pitched roofs, and evidence of decorative wall frescoes, damaged and fragmentary, but extremely precious. Today, these fragments, discovered in the elongated East Wing of the South Enclosure, during excavations conducted by S. Iakovidis, in the early 1980s and 1990s are exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Thebes. The most remarkable of these fragments show diving Dolphins and parts of other maritime scenes, including large Argonauts. These fresco fragments were expertly reconstructed by Christos Boulotis. (See Bibliography)

Dolphin Frieze, Second half of the 13th century BC, Fresco, from the Mycenaean Acropolis of Gla in Boeotia, Archaeological Museum of Thebes, Greece – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, February 19, 2024

The Dolphin Fresco from the Mycenaean Acropolis of Gla is a remarkable artefact that showcases an unusual naturalism and a sophisticated understanding of marine life, captured through the depiction of Dolphins with an astonishing level of detail and realism. These elegant creatures, spanning 75 to 80 cm in height, are painted against a vivid blue background, highlighting their dynamic forms and graceful postures. The Dolphins, numbering between six and seven, are depicted in a uniform size and posture, their bodies elegantly curved into open arches or crescents, embodying the fluidity and grace of living dolphins. Their upper bodies are painted black, featuring a triangular dorsal fin, while their bellies are a contrasting white, delineated from the black with yellow stripes. Their eyes are almond-shaped, set against a yellow background, adding a striking detail to their overall appearance.

The use of colours in the Gla Dolphins fresco draws closer to the real hues of these marine creatures, with the black, white, and yellow providing a stark contrast to the deep blue sea they inhabit. This colour choice not only enhances the naturalism of the scene but also demonstrates the Mycenaeans’ advanced skills in pigment selection and application. Indeed, recent analyses have revealed the use of rare, imported lapis lazuli mixed with hematite and possibly an organic colour derived from murex, underscoring the significant effort and resources devoted to achieving the fresco’s vibrant colours.

This fresco, along with other Dolphin Paintings of the Aegean Bronze Age period demonstrates a persistence of themes drawn from nature within Mycenaean art, suggesting a deep-rooted appreciation for the natural world. The Gla Dolphins, with their lifelike appearance and intricate detailing, stand as a testament to the Mycenaean civilization’s artistic prowess and their enduring fascination with the sea and its inhabitants.

For a Student Activity, inspired by the Dolphin Freeze, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: Christos Boulotis, Reconstructing a Dolphin Frieze and Argonauts from the Mycenaean Citadel of Gla, ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 72, Mycenaean Wall Painting in Context, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens, 2015, pp. 371… https://www.academia.edu/39148590/RECONSTRUCTING_A_DOLPHIN_FRIEZE_AND_ARGONAUTS_FROM_THE_MYCENAEAN_CITADEL_OF_GLA_In_MYCENAEAN_WALL_PAINTING_IN_CONTEXT_ATHENS_2015_371_403

The Allegory of Calumny

by 16th century ArtArtItalian Renaissance ArtRenaissanceRenaissance ArtStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
‘Botticelli’ Workshop
Allegory of Calumny, c. 1530, Oil on Canvas, Galleria Colonna, Rome Italy https://www.galleriacolonna.it/en/botticelli-and-his-workshop-allegory-of-the-calumny-on-temporary-loan-from-12-01-2023-to-04-14-2024-acropolis-museum-athens-exhibition-personifications-and-allegories/

In a world where misinformation can spread with the click of a button, the echoes of truth and deceit battle in the court of public opinion. This timeless struggle was vividly captured in the brushstrokes of The Allegory of Calumny, an intriguing 16th-century painting attributed to ‘Botticelli’s’ Workshop. Displayed as part of the exhibition titled ‘ΝοΗΜΑΤΑ’: Personifications and Allegories from Antiquity to Today at the Acropolis Museum, this Renaissance masterwork travelled from the Galleria Colonna in Rome to Greece, offering a unique opportunity to explore the multifaceted world of allegorical art.

Rising above the primary notion of the image, an allegorical painting seeks to uncover hidden, deeper meanings, visualizing abstract concepts with the aspiration of yielding educational outcomes. In this context, allegory emerges as a powerful form of expression that succeeds in cloaking the true meaning, engaging both written words and visual arts in a delicate dance of revelation and concealment. The Allegory of Calumny painting stands out as one of the most instructive examples from antiquity and the Renaissance, embodying the intricate layers of meaning that such symbolic representation can convey. To understand the painting, we first need to travel back to the 4th century BC and seek information on a lost painting by Apelles, then explore the Renaissance painting Calumny of Apelles by Sandro Botticelli, and finally discuss the painting in the Collection of Galleria Colonna in Rome.

The story of the painting Calumny by the legendary 4th century BC ancient Greek artist Apelles, as recounted by the writer Lucian (Luciano di Samosata, 2nd century BC), is a fascinating narrative that has inspired artists and thinkers through the ages. In Lucian’s telling, the celebrated Greek painter Apelles crafted the painting Calumny after becoming the victim of slander himself. The allegorical painting illustrated a tale of injustice and deception, where a blameless man was falsely accused by Calumny (Slander), personified as a beautiful but deceitful woman. Flanked by Malice, and Deceit, and led by Evil, Slander was depicted taking the innocent man before a judge, who was depicted with donkey’s ears, symbolizing his foolishness and inability to discern the truth. Beside the judge stood his advisors, Ignorance and Assumption. Apelles’ work served not only as a personal reflection on his experiences with slander but also as a universal commentary on the nature of truth, justice, and the destructive power of false accusations. Through this allegory, Apelles conveyed a poignant message about the ease with which innocence can be marred by malevolence, a theme that resonates as deeply today as it did in antiquity. http://lucianofsamosata.info/wiki/doku.php?id=home:texts_and_library:essays:slander

Alessandro Filipepi known as Sandro Botticelli, 1445-1510
Calumny of Apelles, c. 1495, Tempera on Wood, 62×91 cm, The Uffizi, Florence, Italy https://www.uffizi.it/en/artworks/calumny-botticelli

Next, the journey through the Allegory of Calumny takes us into the heart of the Renaissance. It is here that Sandro Botticelli, drawing inspiration from ancient texts that describe Apelles’ work, reimagines this timeless theme through the lens of 15th-century Florence. Botticelli’s Calumny of Apelles not only pays homage to the original masterpiece but also enriches it with the nuanced intricacies of Renaissance artistry and thought, inviting us to explore how the allegorical message has been transformed and recontextualized for a new era. Crafted around 1495, this painting emerges at a pivotal moment, marking the transition from the flourishing Laurentian era to the dawn of a Republic under the influence of Girolamo Savonarola. This piece stands as Botticelli’s final foray into the realm of allegorical and mythological themes, showcasing his unparalleled ability to weave intricate narratives and interpret complex ideas through his art.

According to Giorgio Vasari, Botticelli’s painting was a gift to the artist’s friend Antonio Segni, with the following lines of his own composition beneath it: Indicio quemquam ne falso laedere tentent Terrarum reges, parva tabella monet. Huic similem Aegypti regi donavit Apelles Rex fuit et dignus munere, munus eo… Let any kings of the earth beware of attempting to harm anyone falsely; a small tablet warns them. Apelles, the painter, gave a similar one to the king of Egypt; he was both a king deserving of the gift, and the gift was deserving of him. http://www.artist-biography.info/artist/sandro_botticelli/ and https://www.uffizi.it/en/artworks/calumny-botticelli

Having traversed the historical and artistic landscapes shaped by Apelles’ ancient masterpiece and Botticelli’s Renaissance reinterpretation, our exploration leads us to a final piece: The Allegory of Calumny, created by ‘Botticelli’s’ Workshop and residing in the prestigious Galleria Colonna in Rome. This rendition, exhibited, currently, in the Acropolis Museum in Athens and crafted by an artist whose name has eluded history, embodies the aesthetic values of harmony, proportion, and beauty that defined the period. With a delicate and polished use of line and colour, the unknown artist skillfully captures the viewer’s attention, guiding it across an intricate narrative tableau. The painting, lucking Botticelli’s extravagant architectural ‘fantasy’, depicts the allegorical figures with grace and emotional depth, weaving a rich tapestry of human drama that invites the observer to delve into its complex layers. Furthermore, reaffirms the themes and aesthetic principles of its predecessors, serving as a vivid testament to the enduring legacy of the Calumny motif. It invites us to appreciate the nuanced layers of interpretation and craftsmanship that span centuries, from classical antiquity, through the Renaissance, and into the heart of Italy’s artistic heritage.

For a Student Activity, inspired by the Allegory of Columny painting, please… Check HERE!