Education in Byzantium

by ArtByzantine ArtByzantine ManuscriptByzantiumEducationMedieval ArtSocial StudiesStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Teaching scene with teachers and students during the reign of the scholarly Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos (944-959) by a Sicilian Illuminator identified as B1, 12th century, Illuminated Manuscript version of the Synopsis of Histories, or Σύνοψις Ἱστοριῶν (in Greek) by John Skylitzes, which covers the reigns of the Byzantine emperors from the death of Nicephorus I in 811 to the deposition of Michael VI in 1057, Biblioteca Nacional de España, Madrid, Spain https://www.loc.gov/resource/gdcwdl.wdl_10625/?sp=277

Education in Byzantium was a complex system deeply rooted in the traditions of the Greco-Roman world and the Christian Church, evolving over the centuries to reflect the socio-political and religious changes within the empire. This system spanned from the establishment of Constantinople in 330 AD to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 AD. It was significantly influenced by classical Greek education, Roman administrative needs, and Christian teachings, creating a unique blend of classical and ecclesiastical learning.

Miniature 134r in the illuminated manuscript Madrid Skylitzes presents a Byzantine classroom. Using the illumination as an example, let’s explore… school reality 1.000 years ago!  

The Madrid Skylitzes is a richly illustrated manuscript, the only known illuminated manuscript of a Byzantine Greek Chronicle, that serves as a vital historical record of the Byzantine Empire from the reign of Emperor Nikephoros I in 811 AD to the death of Emperor Michael IV in 1057 AD. Named after the Spanish city where it is currently housed, the manuscript is based on the work of John Skylitzes, a late 11th century historian. The Madrid Skylitzes is notable for its detailed and vivid miniatures, 575 of which combine Byzantine, Western and Islamic elements of unparalleled significance for art historians. These miniatures depict the period’s significant events, battles, and personalities, providing a unique visual accompaniment to the textual narrative. This manuscript is one of the few surviving examples of Byzantine historical illustration and is invaluable for its insights into Byzantine art, culture, and historical scholarship.

Teaching scene with teachers and students during the reign of the scholarly Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos (944-959) by a Sicilian Illuminator identified as B1, 12th century, Illuminated Manuscript version of the Synopsis of Histories, or Σύνοψις Ἱστοριῶν(in Greek) by John Skylitzes, which covers the reigns of the Byzantine emperors from the death of Nicephorus I in 811 to the deposition of Michael VI in 1057, Biblioteca Nacional de España, Madrid, Spain https://www.loc.gov/resource/gdcwdl.wdl_10625/?sp=277

Miniature 134r of the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript vividly illustrates the essence of education during the Byzantine era, particularly the progress of letters during the reign of Constantine Porphyrogenitus (913-959). On the left side of the miniature, a group of eight male students is shown seated at a desk with open notebooks, highlighting their active participation in learning, presided over by their teacher, who expounds and explains with an upraised hand. Further to the right, four (possibly six) more students with notebooks in hand are depicted standing before two professors of philosophy. The scene takes place in a well-constructed, rectangular building that is collonaded, spacious, and well-furnished. The students appear young and attentively engaged. Their expressions, postures, and gestures suggest concentration and eagerness to absorb the teachings. The three teachers, two of whom are bearded, are shown with upraised pointer fingers, clearly in the process of delivering a lesson. Overall, the scene conveys a sense of disciplined yet dynamic learning, reflecting the structured and vibrant nature of Byzantine scholarly life. The attention to detail in the students’ attentive postures and the teachers’ engaged gestures underscores the era’s commitment to education and intellectual growth. https://www.academia.edu/31545633

John Skylitzes, emphasizing Emperor Constantine’s praiseworthy and wondrous qualities, highlights his interest in education and explains that …On his own initiative, the Emperor brought about a restoration of the sciences of arithmetic, music, astronomy, geometry in two and three dimensions and, superior to them all, philosophy, all sciences which had for a long time been neglected on account of a lack of care and learning in those [238] who held the reins of government. He sought out the most excellent and proven scholars in each discipline and, when he found them, appointed them teachers, approving of and applauding those who studied diligently. Hence he put ignorance and vulgarity to flight in short order and aligned the state on a more intellectual course.

Education in the Byzantine Empire was generally accessible to the upper and middle classes, while the lower classes had limited access due to economic constraints. The system was predominantly male-oriented, but there are records of women receiving education, particularly within monastic settings or among wealthy families. Notable figures in Byzantine education included Photius, a leading intellectual and Patriarch of Constantinople in the 9th century, and Michael Psellos, an 11th-century scholar who contributed significantly to philosophy, history, and rhetoric.

The legacy of Byzantine education is significant, particularly in its role in preserving and transmitting classical Greek and Roman knowledge to the Islamic world and later to Western Europe during the Renaissance. This educational system influenced Islamic education during the Abbasid Caliphate and contributed to the revival of learning in Western Europe. Through its sophisticated blend of classical and Christian teachings, Byzantine education formed a crucial bridge between the ancient world and medieval Europe, shaping intellectual traditions in both the Eastern and Western worlds.

For a Student Activity, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://www.academia.edu/31545633 and https://www.persee.fr/doc/scrip_0036-9772_2007_num_61_2_4229 and https://www.bne.es/sites/default/files/redBNE/Actividades/Exposiciones/2024/skylitzes-matritensis-bne-en.pdf

Apulian Pottery Style

by Ancient Greek ArtArchaeologyArtEducationGreek ArtPotteryPowerpoints
An Apulian Red-Figured Knob-Handled Patera in the manner of the Lycurgus Painter, circa 2nd half of the 4th century BC, Diameter: 43.2 cm, Private Collection https://www.christies.com/lot/lot-6436519?ldp_breadcrumb=back&intObjectID=6436519&from=salessummary&lid=1

The ancient Apulian Pottery Style, originating in southeastern Italy during the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE, is renowned for its distinctive and ornate red-figure technique. Characterized by elaborate scenes and mythological narratives, Apulian pottery often featured detailed depictions of figures in dynamic poses, showcasing a high level of artistic skill and storytelling. The vessels, ranging from amphorae to kraters to paterae, served both functional and decorative purposes, with intricate designs adorning their surfaces. Artists employed a rich colour palette, including red, white, and yellow, creating a visually striking contrast. The subjects depicted in Apulian pottery varied widely, encompassing mythology, daily life, and religious themes. This unique pottery style not only reflects the artistic achievements of ancient Apulia but also provides valuable insights into the cultural and social context of the time.

In July 2023, at Christie’s, an Apulian Red-Figured Knob-Handled Patera, dating back to the second half of the 4th century BC and executed in the style of the Lycurgus Painter, was auctioned with exceptional results. The patera’s interior features an Amazon on horseback, adorned in an intricate costume and panther skin, wielding a long spear while attacking a panther amidst a complex freeform foliate setting. Conversely, the exterior is decorated with a central figure of winged Eros, flanked by draped females on one side, and a centrally seated draped female, accompanied by winged Eros and another draped female, on the opposite side. This exquisite piece of pottery provides us with the opportunity to raise questions about Apulian Pottery and its significance… https://www.christies.com/lot/lot-6436519?ldp_breadcrumb=back&intObjectID=6436519&from=salessummary&lid=1

What was the cultural and historical context of ancient Apulia during the production of the so-called, Apulian Pottery? Apulia, a region in Southern Italy colonized by the Greeks, played a significant role in the production of pottery during the 4th century BC. Over half of the recovered pottery vases from Southern Italy, particularly in modern Puglia, were crafted in Tarentum, a major Greek polis in the area. This flourishing pottery production was part of the broader phenomenon of Greek colonization in the western Mediterranean, occurring from the 8th to the 5th century BC, leading to the establishment of colonies in Southern Italy and Sicily, collectively known as Magna Graecia or ‘Great Greece.’ The influx of Greek artisans and pottery makers to these colonies facilitated the development of a unique artistic style that blended local Italic traditions with Attic aesthetics.

What is an ‘Apulian Patera’… The term ‘Apulian Patera’ typically refers to a specific shape of ancient Apulian pottery rather than a separate style. A patera is a shallow, often bowl-like vessel with a flat, wide rim. In the context of Apulian pottery, the Apulian Patera shape is commonly associated with the red-figure pottery produced in Apulia during the 4th to 3rd centuries BC. These vessels were characterized by their distinctive form, featuring a broad, flat rim with a slightly concave interior. The exterior of the bowl often displayed intricate red-figure decorations, showcasing scenes from mythology, daily life, or religious motifs. The Apulian Patera shape was popular for various functions, including serving food and libations during rituals or symposia. The artistic embellishments on these vessels, coupled with their functional design, make Apulian Patera potter an intriguing aspect of ancient Apulian artistic and cultural heritage.

How would Apulian Pottery aesthetics be described… Apulian pottery vessels exhibit distinctive aesthetic characteristics that contribute to their enduring appeal. Renowned for their red-figure technique, these vessels typically feature a lustrous black background adorned with intricate, finely drawn details in red, white, and occasionally yellow pigments. The scenes depicted on Apulian pottery often showcase a remarkable level of artistry, with figures engaged in dynamic poses and elaborate narratives drawn from mythology, daily life, or religious themes. The artists displayed keen attention to anatomical accuracy and fine details, emphasizing the expressive facial features and fluid movement of the depicted figures. The wide range of vessel shapes, including kraters, amphorae, and the characteristic Apulian Patera, further highlight the versatility of this pottery tradition. The overall effect is one of visual richness and storytelling, where each vessel becomes a canvas for the skilled artisans to convey both aesthetic beauty and cultural narratives from ancient Apulia.

For a PowerPoint of 10 Masterpieces of Apulian Pottery, please… Check HERE!

Two Early Christian Tunics in Thessaloniki

by Byzantine ArtByzantiumEarly Christian ArtEducationEgyptMedieval ArtSocial StudiesStudent ActivitiesTextilesWorksheets
Early Christian Tunic, 5th-7th cent., Wool, 117×100 cm, from Egypt (permanent loan of the Benaki Museum), Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki, Greece
https://vizantinaistorika.blogspot.com/2016/06/blog-post_30.html

The Early Christian Tunic refers to a garment style worn during the Late Roman/Early Christian period which generally spans from the 4th to the 7th century AD. This era is characterized by the transition from the classical Roman Empire to the Μedieval period, and it includes the later part of the Roman Empire and the Εarly Byzantine Empire. Tunics of that era evolved from the earlier Roman Τunics but had distinct features that reflected the changing cultural, social, and political landscape. My BLOG intends to present information on Two Early Christian Tunics in Thessaloniki, exhibited in the city’s amazing Museum of Byzantine Culture.

What exactly is an Early Christian Tunic? It is a simple, loose-fitting garment, worn by both women and men and often made from linen or wool. Tunics were generally loose-fitting garments, providing comfort and ease of movement. They had no sewing and were worn with the help of belts, buckles, and pins. Cutting and sewing are practices that experienced wider spread in the Mediterranean area after the 7th century. They had a T-shape or a tubular design, with a hole for the head and sometimes sleeves. The shape could vary, and some tunics were more form-fitting than others. The length of the Τunic could also vary. Some reached the knees, while others were longer, extending to the ankles. https://www.mbp.gr/exhibit/chitonas-2/

While some Τunics were plain, others were embellished with plain coloured bands or ‘ornaments’ of textile bands, roundels, or square panels. These bands (called clavi) were of different lengths and adorned the front and back parts of the garment at shoulder level, but sometimes the lower edge was also trimmed with a horizontal band that turned vertically upwards at right angles at each side. Tunics were also adorned with square panels or roundels (called orbiculi) on the shoulders and near their lower edge. Many times, clavi and orbiculi were garment ornaments, tapestry-woven separately, and then applied to the linen or woolen Tunic. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1522750?read-now=1#page_scan_tab_contents page 239

The clothing of the Early Christian period is often studied through archaeological findings, artistic representations, and references in historical texts. For the history of Early Christian garments and their decoration, Egypt is a treasure trove, due to its hot and dry climate. Egyptian textiles that have survived from this period are referred to as Coptic Textiles, an Arabic corruption of the Greek word ‘Aigyptos’, used to describe the Christianised Egyptians.

In the Museum of Byzantine Culture, in Thessaloniki, Greece, there are two Coptic Tunics (on permanent loan from the Benaki Museum) beautifully decorated with clavi and orbiculi.

One of the two Tunics has the natural color of linen and is adorned with purple-colored woven bands (clavi). Wide bands, for instance, embellish the upper part of the chest on both the front and back of the garment. These bands feature depictions of soldiers carrying shields under colonnades. A narrower band extends across the shoulders, displaying roundels with depictions of hares inside woven squares. Prominent features of the Tunic include two long vertical bands that start from the chest and extend to the hem. These bands are adorned alternately with running lions and hares, creating the impression of a hunt.

The second Tunic, multicoloured, and lively, is equally impressive. Made of linen, coloured a vibrant red, it is adorned with woven vertical white bands, thinner than usually fashionable, down to the waist. The rest of the Tunic’s ornamentation consists of bands for the neck area and the hem of each wrist, adorned with white geometric shapes against a black background for the neck, and white lozenge motifs against a black background for the cuffs. Finally, two discs (orbiculi) with stylized plant motifs in the same colour palette, are placed in the lower part of the Tunic. Noteworthy is the fact that at the height of the waist, there is a seam that covers a belt.

Both Tunics are displayed in the Museum’s 2nd Gallery, where aspects of Early Christian period city life are presented. This Exhibition, inaugurated on July 10th, 1998, is organized around the triclinium, that is the reception hall of a rich house in Thessaloniki. It presents issues that emphasize the role of the city as a fortified residential complex, its private and public life, professional activities, economic life, commerce, workshops, houses and their equipment (pottery and glass vessels), domestic activities (weaving, cooking) and objects for personal adornment. https://www.mbp.gr/en/permanentexhibitions/room-2-early-christian-city-and-dwelling/

For a Student Activity, inspired by the Coptic Tunics in Thessaloniki, please… Check HERE!

The Arts of the Gothic Period

by ArtEducationFrench ArtMedieval ArtPowerpoints
Basilica of Saint Denis, completed in 1144, Paris, France
https://dianadarke.com/tag/saint-denis/

The Gothic period, spanning roughly from the 12th to the 16th century, was a transformative era in the history of art and architecture in Europe. Characterized by a departure from the preceding Romanesque style, the Arts of the Gothic Period sought to reach new heights—both literally and figuratively. One of the defining features of Gothic architecture is the Pointed Arch, allowing for taller and more graceful structures, exemplified in the soaring cathedrals that stand as iconic symbols of the period. Ribbed vaults and flying buttresses became integral elements, enabling the construction of large, light-filled interiors. Intricately detailed Stained Glass Windows played a crucial role in illuminating these spaces, with vibrant scenes from biblical narratives or depictions of saints. Sculpture, too, flourished during this period, with an emphasis on naturalistic forms and intricate detailing. The Gothic arts, including illuminated manuscripts and panel paintings, often reflected the religious fervor of the time, showcasing a blend of piety and artistic innovation. The Gothic period remains a testament to the creative and spiritual aspirations of medieval Europe, leaving an enduring legacy in its architectural masterpieces and finely crafted artworks.

Architecture

Gothic architecture, prevalent in Europe from the 12th to the 16th century, is characterized by its soaring verticality, pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses. In contrast to the massive and solid structures of Romanesque architecture, Gothic buildings exhibit a sense of upward movement and lightness. The pointed arches, a departure from the round arches of the Romanesque style, allowed for greater height and grace in the design. Ribbed vaults and pointed arches not only added aesthetic elegance but also distributed the weight of the roof more efficiently. The flying buttresses, external supports resembling arched piers, played a crucial role in supporting the walls and allowed for expansive windows, often featuring intricate tracery. These large stained glass windows, a hallmark of Gothic cathedrals, flooded the interiors with colored light, creating an ethereal and transcendent atmosphere. Overall, Gothic architecture represents a departure from the solid and fortress-like structures of the Romanesque period, embracing a vertical and ornate style that reflected a spiritual aspiration toward the divine.

Sculpture

Gothic sculpture is characterized by its intricate detailing, expressive figures, and a heightened sense of naturalism. Gothic sculptors moved away from the stylized forms of the preceding Romanesque period, instead focusing on capturing the human form with greater realism and emotion. Figures in Gothic sculptures are often elongated, with graceful, flowing lines that impart a sense of movement. Sculptures adorning cathedrals and other Gothic structures often depict biblical scenes, saints, and grotesque gargoyles. The use of drapery became more elaborate, creating dynamic and lifelike folds. Moreover, Gothic sculptors employed deep relief and innovative techniques, such as “stiff leaf” carving and elaborate tracery, contributing to the overall sense of delicacy and intricacy in their work. These sculptures not only served a decorative purpose but also played a didactic role, conveying religious narratives and moral lessons to a largely illiterate medieval audience.

The Stained Glass Rose Window of the North Transept of the Basilica of Saint Denis, completed in 1144, Paris, France https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Basilica-of-Saint-Denis-Rayonnant-Rose-Window.jpg

Stained Glass Windows

Gothic Stained Glass Windows, a defining feature of medieval cathedrals and churches from the 12th to the 16th century, are characterized by their vibrant colors, intricate tracery, and narrative depictions. These windows played a crucial role in Gothic architecture, allowing the infusion of light into the sacred space while serving as a visual storytelling medium. Unlike the smaller and simpler windows of earlier periods, Gothic Stained Glass Windows became expansive, featuring elaborate tracery patterns that divided the glass into intricate segments. The use of intense, jewel-like colors, achieved through the inclusion of metallic oxides in the glass, created a breathtaking visual effect when illuminated by sunlight. Scenes from the Bible, the lives of saints, and other religious narratives were vividly portrayed, often covering entire walls and transforming the interior of the church into a luminous and ethereal space. The intricate craftsmanship of these windows, combined with their symbolic and narrative richness, reflects the Gothic era’s emphasis on transcending earthly confines and conveying spiritual narratives through the play of light and color.

For a PowerPoint on French Gothic Art, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://smarthistory.org/gothic-architecture-an-introduction/ and https://smarthistory.org/gothic-architecture-explained/ and http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/sculpture/gothic-sculpture.htm#characteristics and https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/medieval-world/gothic-art/beginners-guide-gothic-art/a/stained-glass-history-and-technique and https://buffaloah.com/a/DCTNRY/stained/gothic/gothic.html

The Arts of the Romanesque Period

by ArtEducationMedieval ArtPowerpointsSocial Studies
Abbey of Sainte-Foy, c. 1050–1130, Conques, France
Reliquary statue of Sainte-Foy (Saint Faith), late 10th to early 11th century, gold, silver gilt, jewels, and cameos over a wooden core, 85.09 cm, Treasury, Abbey of Sainte-Foy, Conques, France
https://smarthistory.org/church-and-reliquary-of-sainte%E2%80%90foy-france/

The Romanesque Period, spanning roughly from the 11th through the 12th century in Europe, was characterized by a distinct style of art (in sculpture and painting) and architecture. During this time, the construction of massive, fortress-like buildings with thick stone or stone-and-brick walls was prevalent. Rounded arches, barrel and groin vaults, and small, often semicircular windows were common architectural features. Romanesque art and architecture were marked by an emphasis on symmetry, simplicity, and sculptural decoration, particularly on church facades. These structures, often adorned with intricate stone carvings depicting religious and historical scenes, were designed to inspire and educate the largely illiterate medieval populace. The Romanesque style was closely associated with the power and influence of the Christian Church, but it also found expression in secular structures like castles. It eventually evolved into the more elaborate and vertical Gothic style, but the Romanesque period remains a testament to the medieval European quest for stability, security, and spiritual enlightenment.

Architecture

Romanesque architecture is often associated with the construction of churches and monastic buildings, reflecting the strong influence of the Christian Church during this period. However, the style was also used in the construction of castles, bridges, and other secular structures. It eventually gave way to the Gothic style, which introduced more complex and innovative architectural elements, such as pointed arches, flying buttresses, and larger stained-glass windows. Romanesque art and architecture remain an important part of Europe’s cultural heritage and a testament to the creative and architectural achievements of the medieval period.

Here are key characteristics of Romanesque architecture… Thick, massive walls: Romanesque buildings are known for their thick and sturdy walls, which often incorporate a combination of stone and brick. These walls provided stability and a sense of security, which was important during a period marked by political and social instability. Rounded arches: Romanesque architecture typically features rounded arches, both in doorways and windows. This contrasts with the later Gothic style, which is known for its pointed arches. Barrel vaults and groin vaults: Romanesque churches often have barrel vaults in their naves and aisles, with thick columns or piers supporting the ceiling. In some cases, groin vaults (intersecting barrel vaults) were used, which allowed for larger, more open spaces. Symmetry and order: The Romanesque church plan reflects a desire for symmetry and order, with a focus on creating a sacred space conducive to worship and religious rituals. The cruciform layout, combined with elements like thick walls, rounded arches, and decorative carvings, contributes to the overall solidity and spiritual significance of Romanesque architecture.

Sculpture

Romanesque sculpture, a prominent aspect of the Romanesque period’s artistic expression, is characterized by its highly ornate and intricate stone carvings. These sculptures adorned the facades, portals, and interior spaces of Romanesque churches and other buildings, serving both decorative and didactic purposes.

Key features of Romanesque sculpture include… Religious Themes: Romanesque sculpture predominantly featured religious subjects, such as biblical narratives, saints, and religious symbols. These carvings aimed to convey Christian teachings to an often illiterate medieval audience. Portals and Tympana: One of the most significant areas for Romanesque sculpture was the tympanum, the semicircular space above a church’s entrance. Here, intricate scenes from the Bible, such as the Last Judgment or the Nativity, were depicted in detail. Capital Sculpture: Sculpted capitals, found on the columns or piers within churches, were another prominent location for Romanesque sculpture. These carvings often portrayed various scenes and figures, both religious and secular, and were known for their expressive and stylized designs. Symbolism: Romanesque sculpture was rich in symbolism, with each element carefully chosen to convey a deeper message. For example, animals, grotesque figures, and intricate foliage were often used to represent moral lessons and the struggle between good and evil. Stylized Figures: The figures in Romanesque sculpture often exhibited a certain stiffness and formality, with elongated proportions and simplified facial features. This reflected the artistic conventions of the time and was influenced by the Byzantine and Carolingian traditions.

Romanesque sculpture played a vital role in conveying religious and moral messages to a largely non-literate medieval population. It also demonstrated the artistic and creative achievements of the period, setting the stage for the more dynamic and naturalistic sculptural traditions that emerged in the subsequent Gothic period.

For a PowerPoint on French Romanesque Art, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://smarthistory.org/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-art/ and https://smarthistory.org/medieval-europe-byzantium/romanesque-art-2/

Persephone as Isis and Hades as Sarapis

by Ancient Greek ArtArtEducationGreek ArtMythologyRoman ArtStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Statue Group of Persephone as Isis and Hades as Sarapis, 180-190 AD, Marble, from Gortyn, the island of Grete, Greece

Persephone, Daughter of Zeus, blessed / Only begotten, gracious Goddess, receive this good offering, / Much honoured, you, overpowered by Hades, / you are beloved and lifegiving, / You hold the doors of Hades under the depths of the earth; / Transactor of Justice, your beloved hair the sacred olive branch of the enemy / Mother of the Eumenides, Queen of the Underworld, / You, maiden from Zeus through secret begetting… / … Listen, blessed Goddess and send up fruits from the earth / In peace, flourishing in health from your soothing hand; / And, in life abundance, leading to richness of old age / Then to your realm O Sovereign, and to powerful Hades… and I am reminded of The Statue Group of Persephone as Isis and Hades as Sarapis in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum in Crete… some questions and answers! https://godofthemonth.livejournal.com/2759.html

Where were the statues of Persephone as Isis and Hades as Sarapis found? The statues were discovered on the Island of Crete, in the Temple of the Egyptian Gods in the ancient city of Gortyn.

Few words about the Temple of the Egyptian Gods in Gortyn… It is a significant monument from the ancient world that provides insight into the religious and cultural life of the city. The temple was built during the Roman period and was dedicated to the worship of Egyptian gods, including Isis, Serapis, and Anubis. The temple was likely constructed as a result of the influence of Egyptian culture in Gortyn, as well as the growing popularity of the Egyptian gods in the Roman world. It is a symbol of the cultural diversity of the city and its cosmopolitan nature. The Temple was first excavated by G. Oliverio, in 1914.

Few words about the ancient city of Gortyn… an ancient city located in Crete, Greece, and the capital of the Roman province of Crete and Cyrenaica. It was one of the most important cities in ancient Crete and was a center of politics, culture, and commerce. In its heyday, Gortyn was a thriving city with a diverse population. The city was known for its impressive architecture, including temples, like that of the Egyptian Gods, public buildings like the Roman Odeon, and impressive fortifications. The city was home to the Gortyn Code, a set of laws and regulations that governed the lives of the people of Crete and regulated everything from trade and commerce to marriage and family life.

Few words about the statues of Persephone as Isis and Hades as Sarapis… The statues from the Temple of the Egyptian Gods at Gortyn combine iconographic elements and symbols of Hellenic and Egyptian deities alike. The figure of Persephone as Isis is depicted frontally holding a sistrum and wearing a mantle crowned with a disk, the symbol of the sun, between two horns. Hades as Sarapis stands frontally as well. He is crowned with the modius, or grain measure, and holds the scepter of his divine authority in his left hand. On his right is Cerverus, facing the viewer, ferocious-looking and fierce. https://www.heraklionmuseum.gr/en/exhibit/isis-persephone-and-sarapis-hades/

Who were the Greek Gods Persephone and Hades? Persephone and Hades are divine figures from ancient Greek mythology. Persephone was the daughter of Zeus and Demeter, the goddess of agriculture and harvest. Hades was the god of the underworld and the dead.

The myth of Persephone and Hades begins with the kidnapping of Persephone by Hades. According to the story, Hades was so enamored with Persephone that he abducted her and took her to the underworld to be his bride. This caused great distress for Demeter, who searched the earth for her daughter and caused the crops to wither and die. To resolve the situation, Zeus intervened and arranged for Persephone to spend half of the year with her mother and half of the year with her husband in the underworld. During the time that Persephone was with Demeter, the crops would grow and the earth would be fertile, but during the time she was with Hades, the earth would become barren.

This is why the ancient Greeks associated the myth with the changing of the seasons and the cycle of death and rebirth. In addition to being a story about the changing of the seasons, the myth of Persephone and Hades also symbolizes the journey of the soul and the transition from life to death. Hades represents the dark, mysterious, and unknown aspects of the afterlife, while Persephone represents the soul that must journey through this realm. The myth of Persephone and Hades is undoubtedly an important and enduring tale in Greek mythology that continues to captivate audiences to this day.

Why and How did the Greek Gods, Persephone, and Hades, connect with the Egyptian Gods Isis and Sarapis? The cult of the Egyptian Gods is attested at many sites of the ancient Greek world and became quite popular during the Hellenistic period. The amalgamation of the attributes of the Egyptian deities Isis and Sarapis with those of the Greek Persephone and Hades is a syncretic phenomenon observed during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. https://www.heraklionmuseum.gr/en/exhibit/isis-persephone-and-sarapis-hades/

One of the key similarities between Persephone and Isis is their association with the afterlife and the underworld. Persephone was abducted by Hades and became the queen of the underworld, while Isis was often depicted as the “Lady of the Tomb” and was associated with the afterlife and the dead. Both figures were also associated with the idea of rebirth and renewal and were revered as powerful, nurturing goddesses who could bring life and fertility to the earth. In both myths, the goddess was seen as a powerful figure who could help guide the souls of the dead through the afterlife and ensure that they reached their final resting place.

The Egyptian God Sarapis is thought to be a creation of Ptolemaic Egypt, an amalgama of Osiris, husband of Isis, Apis, and Hades. Sarapis was widely worshipped in the Hellenistic world and was particularly popular in the city of Alexandria in Egypt. He was depicted as a powerful and benevolent ruler of the underworld and was seen as a savior figure who could grant salvation to those who worshipped him. Despite their different origins, both Hades and Sarapis were seen as gods of the underworld who held sway over the fate of the dead. In this sense, they both represented the powers of death and the afterlife in the ancient world. https://www.heraklionmuseum.gr/en/exhibit/isis-persephone-and-sarapis-hades/

For a Student Activity, please… Check HERE!

Photo Credit: https://www.heraklionmuseum.gr/en/exhibit/isis-persephone-and-sarapis-hades/

Léon Bakst

by 20th century ArtArtArt DecoEducationLesson PlansPowerpointsStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Léon Bakst, Russian Artist, 1866-1924
Costume Design for a Woman from the Village, for the Ballet ‘Daphnis and Chloé’, performed at the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, 1912, Watercolor and graphite, 26 × 21.6 cm, the MET, NY, USA https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/698631

It is goodbye to scenery designed by a painter blindly subjected to one part of the work, to costumes made by any old dressmaker who strikes a false and foreign note in the production; it is goodbye to the kind of acting, movements, false notes and that terrible, purely literary wealth of details which make modern theatrical production a collection of tiny impressions, without that unique simplicity which emanates from a true work of art… wrote Léon Bakst… and my students loved him!https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/l%C3%A9on-bakst-design-for-the-ballet

Léon Bakst (Lev Samoylovich Rosenberg, 1866-1924) was a Russian artist and designer, best known for his work in the fields of theatrical and costume design. He was born in Grodno, now in modern-day Belarus, and studied at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. Bakst’s most significant contributions were to the Diaghilev Ballets Russes, a Russian ballet company that performed throughout Europe in the early 20th century. Bakst designed sets and costumes for many of the company’s most famous productions, including “The Firebird,” “Petrouchka,” and “The Rite of Spring.” In addition to his work with the Ballets Russes, Bakst also designed costumes for the Moscow Art Theatre and for various operas and plays. He was also an accomplished painter, creating works in a variety of styles including Art Nouveau, Symbolism, Art Deco, and Orientalism.

I am intrigued by the artist’s research into the art of ancient Greece which began in St Petersburg when preparing designs for productions of the Greek tragedies Hippolytus, Antigone, and Oedipus at Colonus in 1902 and 1904. It was apparently further enhanced in 1907 when Léon Bakst visited Greece with Valentin Serov, a journey which ‘had the most profound effect on the artist as it radically affected his palette and inspired his decorative imagination΄. In the Archaeological Museum in Olympia, looking at the statues of female figures, Bakst wrote… I want terribly to run my hand over the marble, to find out what Niobe’s(?) shoulders are like… https://hyperallergic.com/501125/hymn-to-apollo-ancient-greek-art-ballet-russes/ and https://poulwebb.blogspot.com/2022/01/leon-bakst-part-1.html

Léon Bakst, Russian Artist, 1866-1924
Costume Design for Tamara Karsavina as Chloé, for Daphnis et Chloé, ca. 1912, Graphite and tempera and/or watercolor on paper, 28.2×44.7 cm, Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art, Hartford, CT, USA https://isaw.nyu.edu/exhibitions/ballets-russes/objects/72
Léon Bakst, Russian Artist, 1866-1924
Cleopatra, Costume for a Syrian woman, 1909, cotton, silk, metal studs, paint, length 110.0 cm, National Gallery of Australia, Canberra
Cleopatra, Costume for a Greek, 1909, silk, lamé, metallic braid, center back length 96.0 cm, National Gallery of Australia, Canberra
https://searchthecollection.nga.gov.au/landing#/results?keyword=L%C3%A9on%20Bakst&includeParts

The artist’s talent was boundless, wrote the State Tretyakov Gallery experts, reaching the very top in every field of art he touched upon – be it stage design, costume designs, graphics, or painting. There was much to explore… but my 4-Steps to Success Lesson Plan kept me… on track! https://artsandculture.google.com/story/the-collector-of-success-leon-bakst/VQUBSXEITyGILA

My students were enthused by Bakst’s style characterized by bold colors, sinuous lines, intricate patterns, and the use of exotic motifs. They were fascinated by his ability to draw inspiration from Russian folk art, Middle Eastern and East Asian cultures, and Classical Antiquity. His projects, they understood, were revolutionary at the time, and helped to establish a new standard for theatrical design. They were impressed by how contemporary his oeuvre appears and how his work continues to inspire designers and artists today.

A RWAP Student Activity (RWAP stands for: Research – Writing – Art – Project) in a PowerPoint format with eighteen examples of Designs and actual Costumes by Léon Bakst … HERE!

For a PowerPoint, please… Check https://www.teachercurator.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/LBakst-Art-PP.pdf

Léon Bakst, Russian Artist, 1866-1924
Costume design for Theseus, (Oedipus at Colonus performance at St. Petersburg, Alexandrinsky Theater), 1904, Watercolor and Pencil on Paper, 28 by 21 cm, Private Collection
https://macdougallauction.com/en/catalogue/view?id=5652

The Bersha Procession

by ArtEducationEgyptEgyptian ArtPowerpointsStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
The Bersha Procession, Middle Kingdom, late 11th Dynasty–early 12th Dynasty, 122010–1961 BC, Egypt, Deir el-Bersha, Tomb 10, shaft A (Djehutynakht), Painted Wood, 66.4 x 8.6 x 42.5 cm, MFA, Boston, MA, USA
https://gr.pinterest.com/pin/670473463254087082/?nic_v3=1a7FXhvpJ

In a 1915 excavation, archaeologists from the Harvard University-Boston Museum of Fine Arts Expedition discovered, explain the MFA experts, the entrance to a tomb at the picturesque site of Deir el-Bersha in Egypt. Inside, the MFA team found, in jumbled array, the largest burial assemblage of the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 BC) ever discovered. The tomb, designated Tomb 10A, was filled with the funerary equipment of a local governor by the name of Djehutynakht and his wife, also named Djehutynakht. Robbers had stolen the finest jewels but left everything else, including the severed (but nicely wrapped and painted) head of one of the Djehutynakhts. The tomb contained four beautifully painted coffins, one of which, the famous “Bersha coffin” (the outer coffin of the governor), is arguably the finest painted coffin Egypt produced and a masterpiece of panel painting. The tomb also included Djehutynakht’s walking sticks, pottery, canopic jar, and miniature wooden models that were made for the burial but reflect life on Djehutynakht’s estate, including some 58 model boats and nearly three dozen models of daily life such as individual shops for carpenters, weavers, brick-makers, bakers, and brewers. Of these, the best known is the exquisitely carved Bersha procession of a male priest leading female offering bearers.  https://www.mfa.org/exhibitions/secrets-tomb-10a

During the Middle Kingdom, and for reasons we do not know, a new trend occurred in Egyptian burial customs. Miniature models made of wood, a less costly material, were manufactured in large numbers and placed in the burial chamber to furnish provisions for the deceased in the afterlife. In symbolically providing for the tomb owner’s needs, the models functioned in much the same way as painted scenes of these activities did on the walls of tomb chapels. https://collections.mfa.org/objects/143887

A variety of boats, food products, craftsmen and workshops, soldiers, servants, house models, and agricultural activities, are among the most popular representations. They are three-dimensional, and small in size, made out of wood, and colorfully painted. The fact is that the artistic quality of these models varies. However, the Middle Kingdom funerary models are precious as they convey a liveliness and energy that give us a sense of the bustling activities of Egyptian daily life. They also demonstrate innovative poses and subjects that would never have been attempted in the more formal sculptures that represented the tomb owner and his family. https://collections.mfa.org/objects/143702/model-of-a-granary;jsessionid=2E377953D2424D2AFEA2C5AB2332B8C7?ctx=bc58e347-f685-466f-8431-dabc79fda065&idx=32

The Deir el-Bersha region https://cool.culturalheritage.org/jaic/articles/jaic42-02-003.html and https://www.arts.kuleuven.be/dayr-al-barsha/project-sites

The Tomb of Djehutynakht put on view the largest collection of wooden models ever discovered in Egypt. The archaeologists, excavating the site in May 1915, discovered the ransacked Tomb of a local governor, stripped of all precious artifacts except humble items of clay, wood, and paint. They discovered 58 model boats and nearly three dozen models of daily life such as individual shops for carpenters, weavers, brick-makers, bakers, and brewers. Of these, the best known is the exquisitely carved Bersha Procession of a male priest leading female offering bearers. https://www.mfa.org/exhibitions/secrets-tomb-10a

The Bersha Procession, 2010–1961 BC, Egyptian Middle Kingdom, late Dynasty 11 – early Dynasty, Findspot: Egypt, Deir el-Bersha, Tomb 10, shaft A (Djehutynakht), Painted Wood,  66.4 x 8.6 x 42.5 cm, MFA, Boston, USA
https://gr.pinterest.com/pin/405886985159696252/ and https://www.reddit.com/r/AgeofBronze/comments/qhkhq8/procession_of_offering_bearers_egypt_deir/

The MFA experts believe that the Bersha Procession stands out in every aspect. The skill and delicacy with which it was carved, and painted, they state, rank it among the finest wooden models ever found in Egypt. https://collections.mfa.org/objects/143592/model-of-a-procession-of-offering-bearers-the-bersha-proce?ctx=913074da-57e1-4b97-86d5-d4064c9e2c0e&idx=26

The Bersha Procession, 2010–1961 BC, Egyptian Middle Kingdom, late Dynasty 11 – early Dynasty, Findspot: Egypt, Deir el-Bersha, Tomb 10, shaft A (Djehutynakht), Painted Wood,  66.4 x 8.6 x 42.5 cm, MFA, Boston, SA
https://www.facebook.com/photo?fbid=1926909784017802&set=pcb.1926910000684447

The composition is simple, yet elegant, finely carved and subtly painted. Four figures, a man and three women ‘march’ towards the deceased Djehutynakht bringing offerings to sustain his Ka in the afterlife. They bring him food, drink, items of personal adornment, and the incense used to attract and appease divinities and the blessed dead. https://collections.mfa.org/objects/143592/model-of-a-procession-of-offering-bearers-the-bersha-proce?ctx=913074da-57e1-4b97-86d5-d4064c9e2c0e&idx=26

Simply put, I am completely awestruck by the high quality of craftsmanship and anecdotal details of the Bersha Procession model. So much so, that I dream of visiting the MFA once more!

For a PowerPoint on the contents of the Djehutynakht’s Tomb (Tomb 10A), please… Check HERE!

For a Student Activity inspired by the Bersha Procession, please… Check HERE!

The Boston Museum of Fine Arts received the contents of Djehutynakht’s tomb (Tomb 10A) as a gift from the Egyptian government for their assistance in the 1915 excavation. Since 1920 the Bersha finds are in Boston. https://www.mfa.org/exhibitions/secrets-tomb-10a

The dynamic Middle Kingdom

by Ancient EgyptArtEducationLesson PlansPowerpointsSocial Studies
Model of a Boat from the Tomb of Meketre  12th Dynasty, ca. 1981–1975 BC, Wood, paint, plaster, linen twine, linen fabric, Length: 132.5 cm, the MET, NY, USA
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wooden_tomb_model#/media/File:Model_Paddling_Boat_MET_20.3.5_EGDP011930.jpg

The dynamic reunification of the Two Lands in ancient Egypt, in the period we call the Middle Kingdom, created new requirements for the Egyptian Pharaohs. No longer an aloof divine representative of the gods on earth, the king in the Middle Kingdom was expected to be more available to the people. This period also saw increased interactions with the outside world, the re-establishment of connections with Syria to the north and the establishment of forts reaching south deep into Nubia. Rich in literature (often of great knowledge and wit), this era also produced exquisite works of art. The cult of Osiris grew as did the number of Egyptians who could equip themselves for the afterlife, what we might recognize as a “middle class.” The dynamic Middle Kingdom represents an amazing period in Egyptian history worth exploring… https://smarthistory.org/middle-kingdom-and-second-intermediate-period-introduction/

During the Middle Kingdom, a period stretching from about 2040 to 1650 BC, Egyptian cultural principles were reimagined. We will start with my Steps to Success Lesson Plan Outline… our Goal is to “travel” through the Middle Kingdom timeline and discuss aspects of cultural and social developments, changes in religious perspectives, and new artistic viewpoints. Let’s not forget that the Middle Kingdom is considered by some scholars the ‘classical’ period of the ancient Egyptian era.

Credited with reuniting Egypt, Mentuhotep II of the 11th Dynasty, brought back peace and prosperity to Egypt and became the first Pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom. During the extended period of his reign, a unique burial complex in Deir el-Bahri was constructed, and a fresh style in Pharaonic representation took shape. By the end of the 12th Dynasty art production reached new heights in architecture, sculpture, painting, relief decoration, and jewelry.

Statues of Senusret or Sesostris or Senworset III, 12th Dynasty, c. 1878-1839 BC, Granodiorite, Height: 122 cents, British Museum, London, UK
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senusret_III  

If the art of the Old Kingdom appears majestic and confident, let’s not forget the solid stone pyramids, and the youthful, serene, self-assured statues of the pharaohs, the new Middle Kingdom era captivates us with its sense of maturity, and realism. The key development in art is the invention of the Portrait. The transition towards a humanizing tendency in portraiture is captivating. The Portrait of Senwosret III is a good example, as the ruler seems to have consciously chosen to represent his humanity rather than an idealized image of eternal kingship.

Fascinating is the Middle Kingdom’s penchant for symbolic jewelry. The cloisonné pectoral of Princess Sithathoryunet, for example, is astounding. Inlaid with 372 carefully cut pieces of semiprecious stones the pectoral presents us with high-quality craftsmanship and a new  Egyptian love for rendering detail… even on the back part of a jewelry piece, the part visible solely to the Egyptian who wore it!

Finally, the increase in the number of private monuments, like the rock-cut tombs in Beni Hasan, the lavish fresco decoration on the walls of these monuments, and the vast production of simple, yet enchanting, funerary gifts like the wood models of workshops, food-production facilities, and domestic structures, is compelling. It shows that a group of talented workmen served the provincial ‘aristocracy’ with fine quality work in every medium, suggesting that during the Middle Kingdom afterlife was ‘democratized’ to allow nonroyal individuals access to a different type of afterlife, and a wider range of ‘available’ symbols to use.

For the PowerPoint ‘The Art of the Middle Kingdom’, please… Check HERE!

For the Middle Kingdom Timeline, please… please Check HERE!

Learn about Pharaoh Mentuhotep II and his achievements through a DW World History Video… https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KNArI5Y8MOg

Watch a Video about the small MET Model of an Offering Lady  Bearer from the Tomb of Meketre… https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4k9JklNrTk

The Art of Ancient Egypt: A Resource for Educators is very informative and easy to download… https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/The_Art_of_Ancient_Egypt_A_Resource_for_Educators

The Apotheosis of Herakles

by Ancient Greek ArtArtEducationExhibitionsGreek ArtHeraclesMythologyPowerpointsSculpture
Apotheosis (Deification) of Herakles Pediment, c. 570 BC, Actite, a type of porous limestone, painted,  H. 0.94 m, L. 1.74 m, Acropolis Museum, Athens, Greece
https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/apotheosis-deification-herakles-pediment

I will sing of Herakles, the son of Zeus and much the mightiest of men on earth. Alcmena bare him in Thebes, the city of lovely dances, when the dark-clouded Son of Cronos had lain with her. Once he used to wander over unmeasured tracts of land and sea [5] at the bidding of King Eurystheus, and himself did many deeds of violence and endured many; but now he lives happily in the glorious home of snowy Olympus, and has neat-ankled Hebe for his wife. Hail, lord, son of Zeus’ Give me success and prosperity… writes the anonymous poet of Homeric Hymn 15… and The Apotheosis of Herakles in the Acropolis Museum comes to my mind. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0138%3Ahymn%3D15

Let’s answer some questions about The Apotheosis of Herakles in the Acropolis Museum…

What is a Pediment and how important Pediments were they for Greek Temple Architecture? According to the Encyclopedia Britannica… Pediment, in architecture, is a triangular gable forming the end of the roof slope over a portico (the area, with a roof supported by columns, leading to the entrance of a building). For ancient Greek architecture, the two pediments featured on the two narrow sides of their temples were very important. They served as the ‘crowning feature’ of the whole structure. The triangular wall surface of the pediment, called the tympanum, was often decorated with sculptural compositions. Last but not least, Pediments were always crowned by a raking, or slanted, cornice. https://www.britannica.com/technology/pediment-architecture

Where, and When, did the Apotheosis of Herakles Pediment was discovered? The Apotheosis of Herakles pediment was discovered, during the 1888 excavation period, buried, east and southeast of the Parthenon, in the Acropolis of Athens.

Was the Apotheosis of Herakles Pediment part of the Acropolis Perserschutt? Yes! The Perserschutt consists of numerous remains of statues vandalized by the Achaemenids during the terrible years of the second Persian invasion… Ten years after the Battle of Marathon (490 BC), the Persians returned to Greece and after their victory at the Battle of Thermopylae, in September of 480 BC, they entered Athens. The small number of Athenians who had barricaded themselves on the Acropolis, hoping that the Wooden Walls of the Delphic Oracle would protect them, were eventually defeated, and Xerxes ordered Athens to be torched. Those Persians who had come up first betook themselves to the gates, which they opened, and slew the suppliants; and when they had laid all the Athenians low, they plundered the temple and burnt the whole of the Acropolis. (Herodotus VIII.53). Months later, after the victory at Salamis, and the Battle of Plateae in 479 BC, the Athenians returned to their city… they respectfully buried the mutilated sacred statues of the Archaic period on the Acropolis (these remains are called Perserschutt) and proceeded with reorganizing their civic and private lives… waiting for the right time to rebuild their Acropolis. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/special-topics-art-history/arches-at-risk-cultural-heritage-education-series/xa0148fd6a60f2ff6:ruins-reconstruction-and-renewal/a/destruction-memory-and-monuments-the-many-lives-of-the-parthenon

Which Acropolis building did the Apotheosis architectural sculptures decorate? Archaeologists are not categorically certain. According to the Acropolis Museum experts, the pediment probably decorated one of the small buildings, referred to as “oikemata”, on the Archaic Acropolis. Some scholars, however, suggest these remains were once part of the pediment of the Hekatompedon, a building that stood on the site now occupied by the Parthenon. https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/apotheosis-deification-herakles-pediment

Apotheosis (Deification) of Herakles Pediment (details), c. 570 BC, Actite, a type of porous limestone, painted, H. 0.94 m, L. 1.74 m, Acropolis Museum, Athens, Greece
https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/apotheosis-deification-herakles-pediment
Apotheosis (Deification) of Herakles Pediment (detail), c. 570 BC, Actite, a type of porous limestone, painted, H. 0.94 m, L. 1.74 m, Acropolis Museum, Athens, Greece
https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/apotheosis-deification-herakles-pediment

How important, artistically, is the Apotheosis Pediment? These pedimental sculptures are of high quality. Of particular interest are the heads that have been preserved, that of Zeus and especially that of Heracles with finely worked details of his facial features and hair. The garments worn by the figures are equally attractively rendered, as is Zeus’s throne with palmettes on the legs, and the skin of the lion, whose head, with incised curls on the mane, covers Heracles’ head like a hood. https://www.latsis-foundation.org/content/elib/book_8/acropolis_en.pdf page 30-31

Louis Émile Emmanuel Gilliéron (known as Émile Gilliéron père), Suisse Artist, 1851-1924
Apotheosis (Deification) of Herakles Pediment, 1919, Watercolor and graphite on paper, L. 110.5 cm, H. 85.1 cm, the MET, NY, USA https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/625053?&exhibitionId=0&oid=625053&pkgids=773

How is Émile Gilliéron père related to The Apotheosis of Herakles Pediment? In a letter addressed to Gisela M. A. Richter, curator of the Metropolitan Museum in New York, dated October 29, 1918, Emile Gilliéron père informs the noted archaeologist and art historian, that he has executed, at the Acropolis of Athens, four watercolors that may interest the Museum. One of these watercolours is the Apotheosis of Herakles. Gilliéron, recognized as a skilled archaeological draftsman, worked for the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) in the Acropolis, Heinrich Schliemann at Mycenae, and  Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos, where Gilliéron father and son served for thirty years as draftsmen, restorers, and advisers. The watercolour of the Apotheosis Pediment is of the utmost importance. It documents the vibrant colours the Archaic artist used, red, blue, black, green, and yellow, at the time of their discovery, before they were altered by prolonged exposure to the elements. The Gilliéron watercolour is exhibited at the MET, NY Exhibition Chroma: Ancient Sculpture in Color (Through    26, 2023). https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Watercolors_of_the_Acropolis_Emile_Gillieron_in_Athens

For a PowerPoint on Gilliéron’s Watercolours of the Acropolis architectural sculptures, please… Check HERE!