Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople

by 15th century ArtArtByzantiumItalian Renaissance ArtRenaissanceRenaissance ArtSocial StudiesStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Tomb of Joseph II Patriarch of Constantinople, Florentine sculptor, 1440, Santa Maria Novella, Florence
Painted Portrait of Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople, 1590-92, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy
Photo credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 2025

Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople was a pivotal figure in the history of the Eastern Orthodox Church, most notably for his participation in the Council of Ferrara-Florence (1438–1439), a major attempt to reconcile the long-standing schism between the Eastern and Western Christian churches. As the spiritual leader of the Eastern delegation, he played a crucial role in the theological dialogues aimed at achieving ecclesiastical unity. Though the union was short-lived, his involvement marked a significant moment of engagement between East and West. Patriarch Joseph II passed away during the council in Florence in 1439, and fittingly, his tomb remains in the Dominican church of Santa Maria Novella, an enduring symbol of his commitment to bridging divided faiths.

Born around 1360, likely in Constantinople, he was of noble origin and possibly related, on his father’s side, to the Bulgarian royal family. Before rising to the patriarchate, Joseph became a monk on Mount Athos and later served as the Metropolitan of Ephesus. In 1416, he was elected Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, leading the Orthodox Church during a time of both spiritual and geopolitical crisis as the Byzantine Empire faced increasing pressure from the advancing Ottoman Turks.

A staunch supporter of church unity, Joseph II was a central participant in the Council of Ferrara-Florence (1438–1445), convened to heal the East-West Schism between the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches. His delegation sought Western military aid in exchange for theological concessions, a strategy driven by the empire’s desperate political situation. Despite his ill health, Joseph played a vital role in the negotiations, advocating dialogue and reconciliation. He died in Florence on June 10, 1439, before the council concluded, and was buried with honor in the church of Santa Maria Novella. His tomb remains there today, a rare and poignant symbol of his commitment to Christian unity and the enduring legacy of his leadership in a time of upheaval.

Although no literary or theological works by Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople are known to have survived, his contemporaries spoke highly of his intellect and character. Ambrogio Traversari, in a letter dated February 20, 1438, praised him as venerable, so refined, with common sense, experience in life, and added, in my judgment, I think that today one could not find his like in all of Greece [Byzantium], noting that their conversation and the patriarch’s demeanor arouses respect. In Personalities of the Council of Florence, and Other Essays, Joseph Gill echoes this view, portraying Joseph II as a spiritually and intellectually vibrant leader despite his old age and deteriorating health. Nearly eight years old and suffering from heart disease, the Patriarch nonetheless demonstrated keen insight, prudent judgment, and steadfast dedication to the cause of church union until his death in Florence, shortly before the council concluded.

The Tomb of Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople in the church of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, is a striking monument that reflects both historical reverence and artistic devotion. Created by a Florentine sculptor around 1440, the tomb commemorates the Eastern Patriarch who died in Florence during the Council of Florence, a major attempt at reunifying the Eastern and Western Churches. A later painted portrait (1590–92) complements the sculptural work, offering a vivid image of the patriarch. Ambrogio Traversari, a key figure in the council and admirer of Joseph II, described him with deep respect… The father is old, and, like his age, his grey hair, long beard and face make him a venerable figure to all who see him. This description is poignantly echoed in both the tomb and the painting, which together convey the spiritual dignity and serene wisdom of a man who symbolized unity and holiness at a crucial moment in church history. https://www.scribd.com/document/688389117/GILL-J-Personalities-of-the-Council-of-Florence-Joseph-II

For a Student Activity, please… Check HERE!

The Spinario

by Ancient Greek ArtArchaeologyArtItalian Renaissance ArtRenaissanceRoman ArtSculptureStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Spinario Estense, Roman Republican Art (attributed), 509 BC 509 BC / 27 BC, Marble, Height: 92 cm, Galleria Estense, Modena, Italy Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 1, 2025

The Spinario, also known as Boy with Thorn, is a celebrated bronze statue that likely dates to the Hellenistic period (323–31 BC), though the most famous version is a Roman copy from the 1st century BC. The original Greek artist remains unknown, but the sculpture exemplifies the Hellenistic interest in naturalism and the depiction of everyday, intimate moments. It shows a young boy seated, intently pulling a thorn from his foot—a simple yet evocative scene that contrasts with the heroic or divine themes common in earlier classical art. The statue gained fame during the Renaissance, admired for its realistic portrayal of youth and emotion, and was among the first ancient sculptures to be displayed publicly in Rome, influencing artists for centuries.

Spinario, 1st century BC, Bronze, Height: 73 cm, Museii Capitolini, Rome, Italy
https://www.museicapitolini.org/en/opera/spinario

Its presence in Rome during the Renaissance elevated the Spinario to iconic status, as artists and scholars alike celebrated it as a paragon of classical antiquity, drawn to its technical mastery and expressive naturalism. Its prominent display made it a touchstone for artists seeking to reconnect with the aesthetics and values of antiquity. Housed in the Palazzo dei Conservatori on the Capitoline Hill, it was admired not just for its aesthetic beauty but also for its embodiment of classical ideals, such as contemplation and youthful grace. Renaissance humanists and artists saw the Spinario as a direct link to the artistic genius of antiquity, inspiring works that emphasized anatomical accuracy, emotional depth, and classical themes. Its presence helped revive a deep respect for Greco-Roman art and shaped the artistic ambitions of the period.

Severo Da Ravenna (workshop of),
The Spinario, 1510-1530, Bronze, Height: 18.8 cm, V&A Museum, London, UK https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O158405/the-spinario-statuette-severo-da-ravenna/
Antico (Pier Jacopo Alari Bonacolsi), ca. 1460–1528
Spinario, modeled ca. 1496, cast ca. 1501, Bronze, Height:19.7 cm, the MET, NY, USA https://www.metmuseum.org/perspectives/spinario-facing-pain

During the Renaissance, the Spinario captivated artists who sought to emulate classical antiquity’s grace and realism. Notably, it was copied by artists such as Severo da Ravenna and Jacopo Buonaccolsi (also known as “L’Antico”), both of whom created bronze replicas in the early 16th century. These Renaissance versions were often smaller in scale and displayed the same refined attention to anatomical detail and natural posture. Some of these copies were commissioned by powerful patrons and collectors across Europe, eager to possess echoes of classical antiquity. Today, examples of these Renaissance copies can be found in major collections such as the Louvre Museum in Paris, the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, and the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, reflecting the enduring influence of the Spinario on European art and collecting traditions.

Spinario Estense, Roman Republican Art (attributed), 509 BC 509 BC / 27 BC, Marble, Height: 92 cm, Galleria Estense, Modena, Italy Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 1, 2025

The Spinario Estense, now housed in the Galleria Estense in Modena, is a sculpture that reflects deep admiration for classical antiquity. Its form is based on the celebrated ancient statue of a boy removing a thorn from his foot, which was once located in the Lateran area of Rome before being transferred to the Capitoline Hill in 1471 by Pope Sixtus IV. The Modena version was restored between 1598 and 1599 by the sculptor Francesco Casella, as noted in a letter to Giovan Battista Laderchi, secretary to Duke Cesare d’Este. It arrived in Modena between 1629 and 1630, becoming part of the Este collection, where it remains a key example of how Renaissance patrons sought to preserve and celebrate the artistic legacy of antiquity.

The statue in Modena is now widely regarded as an eclectic work that blends stylistic elements from different periods of antiquity. Scholars believe it was originally conceived in the Hellenistic period, with a naturalistic body inspired by Greek prototypes, while the head reflects the more rigid, idealized forms of the earlier Severe Style. This fusion suggests the statue, in its present form, was produced in the 1st century BC, during the proto-Augustan age. Recent interpretations propose that rather than representing a generic shepherd boy, the figure may embody a more significant character tied to Rome’s foundational mythology. In the cultural and political climate of the Augustan period, the shepherd par excellence of Greek origin was Ascanio, also known as Iulo—the mythological son of Aeneas and legendary ancestor of the gens Iulia—lending the statue a symbolic dimension connected to Roman identity and imperial lineage.

Spinario Estense, Roman Republican Art (attributed), 509 BC 509 BC / 27 BC, Marble, Height: 92 cm, Galleria Estense, Modena, Italy Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 1, 2025

Seeing the Spinario Estense in person on April 1st, 2026, was a striking and memorable experience. Standing before it in the Galleria Estense, I was captivated by the quiet intensity of the boy’s gesture, so focused, so human. Knowing its long journey through time, from Hellenistic inspiration to Roman reinterpretation and Renaissance reverence, added a powerful sense of continuity to the moment. What struck me most was how this single figure holds within its layers of history, mythology, and artistic devotion. It reminded me that classical art isn’t just something we study, it’s something we feel, and seeing the Spinario in Modena made that connection deeply personal.

For a Sudent Activity, titled If the Spinario Could Speak…, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://catalogo.beniculturali.it/detail/HistoricOrArtisticProperty/0800675924

Bust of a Lady

by ArchaeologyArtEarly Christian ArtGreek ArtMuseumsSculptureStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Bust of a Lady, circa 410 AD, from an Asia Minor workshop, possibly in
Aphrodisias, circa 410, white Phrygian (Dokimion) Marble, Height: 56 cm, Archaeological Museum of Chania, Greece

In the Archaeological Museum of Chania on the island of Crete, the Bust of a Lady offers a rare window into the shifting artistic and cultural values of the Late Roman and Early Christian period through the medium of female portraiture. During this era, women’s portraits began to diverge from classical Roman realism and overt displays of status, embracing a more stylized, introspective aesthetic aligned with emerging Christian ideals. Features such as large, contemplative eyes and serene expressions came to symbolize inner virtue and spiritual depth. While hairstyles and clothing still hinted at social rank, they also reflected increasing modesty, mirroring broader societal transformations.

This particular bust depicts a woman of aristocratic beauty in the prime of her life, aged approximately 25 to 30. She is shown frontally, with her neck gently turned to the right, lending the portrait a poised and lifelike presence. Her oval face is framed by a tall forehead, almond-shaped eyes once inlaid with rose-colored glass, small full lips, and a strong chin—features that convey both grace and inner fortitude. A decorative band of twenty-two stylized curls runs across her forehead and temples, while four braids crown her head, testifying to her refined appearance.

She is draped in a heavy himation falling in deep, classical folds over a lighter chiton, a detail that evokes the sculptural traditions of earlier periods and enhances the portrait’s intellectual elegance. Although her left shoulder is only partially modeled, the form suggests the bust was designed for a niche setting, likely within a private villa, where such an omission would remain unseen. The combination of fine craftsmanship, classical references, and material opulence speaks to both her high status and the enduring artistry of late Roman Crete.

Although initially dated between the 2nd and 4th centuries, recent scholarship proposes a more precise date in the early 5th century, during the reign of Theodosios II (c. 410 AD). This dating is based on strong stylistic parallels with imperial portraits of Valentinian II and Theodosios II, and the bust is thought to have originated in an Asia Minor workshop, likely Aphrodisias. If correct, this attribution provides rare evidence of continued cultural and artistic exchange between Crete and Constantinople following the catastrophic earthquake of 365 AD.

This striking portrait, crafted from fine-grained marble was unearthed in 1982 in Nea Chora, a neighborhood of modern Chania that once formed the western sector of ancient Kydonia. Found in unstratified fill, it lacks a secure archaeological context. Nonetheless, the area was continuously inhabited from the Roman to early Byzantine periods, and the sculpture’s discovery in a historically wealthy district known for luxurious homes supports the notion that it belonged to an elite and culturally vibrant community.

While Crete is most famously celebrated for its Bronze Age Minoan civilization, the island also enjoyed a remarkable cultural resurgence under Roman rule, a period that produced refined works of art like the Bust of a Lady in the Archaeological Museum of Chania. In a region often viewed through the lens of its ancient past, the portrait from Kydonia invites us to appreciate the island’s lesser-known legacy: a vibrant late antique society that continued to engage with the broader currents of imperial art, identity, and belief.

For a Student Activity inspired by the Bust of a Lady in the Archaeological Museum of Chania, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: Heaven & Earth, Edited by Anastasia Drandaki, Demetra Papanikola-Bakirtzi, Anastasia Tourta, Exhibition Catalogue, Athens 2013 https://www.academia.edu/3655015/Heaven_and_Earth_Art_of_Byzantium_from_Greek_Collections_edited_by_Anastasia_Drandaki_Demetra_Papanikola_Bakirtzi_and_Anastasia_Tourta_Exh_cat_Athens_2013_238_9_275 Pages: 56-57 and https://amch.gr/collection/eikonistiki-protomi-astis-l-3176/

Triumph of Neptune and the Four Seasons

by Ancient Roman VillasArchaeologyArtRoman ArtStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Triumph of Neptune and the Four Seasons, from La Chebba, Tunisia, late 2nd century AD,  Mosaic, Bardo National Museum, Tunis, Tunisia https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neptune_Roman_mosaic_Bardo_Museum_Tunis.jpg

I remember standing before the Triumph of Neptune and the Four Seasons mosaic at the Bardo Museum, in Tunisia, sunlight filtering through the high windows as if to echo the brilliance of the scene before me. Neptune, regal and commanding, surged forward in his chariot drawn by sea creatures, while the Four Seasons circled him in a dance of eternal return, each one marked by fruits, flowers, or flowing cloaks. It was as if time itself had been trapped in tesserae, inviting me to reflect on nature’s rhythms and the grandeur of ancient imagination. Today, on the first day of Summer 2025, I’m drawn back to that moment, a reminder that every season begins with awe and the quiet power of renewal.

The Triumph of Neptune and the Four Seasons mosaic was unearthed in 1902 during archaeological excavations at a Roman seaside villa in La Chebba, a coastal town in northeastern Tunisia. The excavation, carried out by archaeologists D. Novak and A. Epinat, revealed a Roman villa comprising twelve rooms, most of which were paved with mosaics of notably good style. The principal room featured a grand composition: at the center, Neptune rides over the waves, attended by two companions, while the four corners are occupied by elegant personifications of the Four Seasons. Likely serving as an atrium or formal reception space, this square, columned room showcased the opulence and artistic refinement of Roman domestic life. Dating from the mid-2nd century AD, during the reign of Antoninus Pius, the mosaic reflects the cultural and aesthetic heights achieved in Roman Africa. After its discovery, it was transferred to the Bardo National Museum in Tunis, where it remains one of the most admired treasures of the collection.

The central medallion of the mosaic from La Chebba presents a commanding depiction of Neptune, the Roman god of the sea. He stands prominently in a quadriga—a four-horse chariot—drawn by hippocamps, mythical sea creatures that are part horse and part fish. Neptune is portrayed nearly nude, showcasing a muscular physique, and is adorned with a nimbus, symbolizing his divinity. In his hands, he holds a trident and a dolphin, traditional attributes associated with his dominion over the sea. The chariot is guided by a Triton and a Nereid, both depicted partially submerged, emphasizing the marine setting of the scene. This composition, as analyzed by Gifty Ako-Adounvo in her 1991 thesis, is unique in Roman mosaic art for combining Neptune with the Four Seasons, reflecting a sophisticated iconography that intertwines themes of nature’s cycles and divine authority.

In the Tunisian mosaic, the Four Seasons are strategically placed at the four corners of the square composition, creating a visual framework around the central circular medallion that features Neptune in his marine chariot. This architectural arrangement draws the viewer’s eye inward while symbolically enclosing Neptune’s dominion within the eternal cycle of time.

In the Triumph of Neptune and the Four Seasons mosaic from La Chebba, each Season is personified as a female figure and placed in one of the four corners of the square composition, surrounding the central medallion of Neptune. These figures are accompanied by specific animals that enrich the symbolic and seasonal imagery. Spring, adorned with floral motifs, wears a floral crown, evoking rebirth and the blossoming of nature. She is paired with a dog, possibly a greyhound, evoking themes of pastoral vitality and energy. Summer, holding sheaves of wheat, is flanked by a lion, representing the strength and intensity of the sun at its peak. Autumn, bearing grapes or a cornucopia, appears with a leopard, reinforcing the season’s association with Dionysian festivity and harvest. Winter, heavily cloaked and bearing pinecones or bare branches, is accompanied by a boar, an animal linked to the hunt and the harshness of the cold months.

Together, the figures of the Four Seasons not only anchor the composition visually but also embody a deeper message of natural rhythm and divine governance. Their accompanying animals, drawn from both myth and the natural world, intensify the seasonal symbolism while reflecting the broader North African mosaic tradition, which skillfully weaves cosmic order with scenes of rural life and agricultural labor.

For Student Activities inspired by the La Chebba mosaic, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: American Journal of Archaeology, Jul. – Sep., 1903, Vol. 7, No. 3 (Jul. – Sep., 1903), pp. 357-404 Published by: Archaeological Institute of America, and https://honorthegodsblog.wordpress.com/2015/02/25/triumph-of-neptune-and-the-four-seasons-from-la/, and https://www.romeartlover.it/Bardo.html

Angelos Giallinas

by 19th century Art20th century ArtArtGreek ArtNeohellenic ArtStudent ActivitiesUncategorizedWorksheets
Angelos Giallina, Greek Artist, 1857 – 1939
The Parthenon, Watercolour over Pencil, 273 by 455 mm, Private Collection
https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2024/royal-noble/the-parthenon?locale=en

In his approach to the Parthenon, Angelos Giallinas (1857–1939), a prominent Greek watercolorist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, not only portrayed the monument as an architectural subject but elevated it to a lyrical symbol of Greek heritage. His work, deeply connected to the theme of Light, Memory, and Reverence, reflects a profound sensitivity to the interplay between the ancient ruins and the surrounding natural environment. Born in Corfu, Giallinas studied at the local School of Fine Arts before continuing his education in Venice, Naples, and Rome. There, he absorbed the refined tonalities of the Italian landscape tradition, which he later fused with a uniquely Greek sensibility rooted in poetic realism and national pride.

Giallinas’s depictions of the Parthenon are marked by a restrained yet evocative use of watercolor. He did not aim for archaeological precision but instead emphasized the atmospheric qualities of the scene, the golden hues of Attic sunlight, the gradations of the Athenian sky, and the quiet dialogue between the ruins and the surrounding landscape. This impressionistic approach aligned with European aesthetic movements of his time while remaining deeply connected to the emotional resonance of place and memory in Greek culture.

Throughout his career, Giallinas gained significant recognition both at home and abroad. He held successful exhibitions across Europe, including in London, where his work attracted the attention of collectors and critics. In 1902, he was commissioned by the British royal family to create a series of Greek landscapes, further elevating his international profile. He played a pivotal role in legitimizing watercolor as a medium for serious artistic expression within Greek art, moving beyond its traditional role as a preparatory tool.

Technically, Giallinas mastered watercolor’s fluidity and transparency with exceptional subtlety. His brushwork was controlled yet expressive, employing translucent washes to create depth without sacrificing luminosity. He avoided harsh contrasts, favoring gradations of color that conveyed a meditative stillness. In his hands, watercolor became a means not just of depiction, but of evocation—his skies, seas, and stones imbued with feeling as much as form.

Crucially, Giallinas’s art reflects the broader cultural currents of post-independence Greece, where landscape painting became a vehicle for expressing national identity. His serene views of the Parthenon and other iconic sites participated in the 19th-century project of reconnecting modern Greece to its classical past. Yet his interpretation was not triumphant or didactic; instead, it was introspective and elegiac. By rendering these monuments with atmospheric sensitivity rather than monumental grandeur, Giallinas offered a vision of Greece that was rooted in continuity, memory, and quiet resilience—qualities that resonated deeply in a society still defining itself between antiquity and modernity.

When I look at Giallinas’s paintings of the Parthenon, I’m struck by their quiet power. There’s no theatrical drama, no exaggerated gesture—just a deep, contemplative calm. He treats the monument not as a tourist spectacle but as something intimate: a memory held in light and stone. The watercolor bleeds gently around the contours of the ruins, dissolving into the pale Athenian sky, as if he’s painting not only what he sees but what he feels. The Parthenon appears suspended in time, drifting between history and the present. Giallinas’s brush whispers rather than declares—and in that quietness, he captures something enduring, something essentially Greek.

For a Student Activity, inspired by Angelos Giallinas’s interpretation of the Parthenon, please… Check HERE!

You can view a former Teacher-Curator BLOG POST titled ‘Garden in Corfu by Angelos Giallinas’… https://www.teachercurator.com/art/garden-in-corfu-by-angelos-giallinas/?fbclid=IwY2xjawKIGElleHRuA2FlbQIxMABicmlkETF5ZWtES1JYMDBPQVY5c055AR7-a8br2Ukq3ahJuUCSU0eESsf5WwODDQtNdgSK0kYgNnSS856uiARVWSentw_aem_T8IM2xzIAGQQEC4qcWajdQ

Bibliography: https://corfuguidedtours.com/a-renowned-painters-historic-mansion/?utm_source=chatgpt.com and https://haaa.gr/news/en_30.php?utm_source=chatgpt.com

Statuette of Asklepios Enthroned

by ArchaeologyArtRoman ArtSculptureStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Statuette of Asklepios Enthroned, Athenian workshop, 150 – 200 AD, Marble, Height: 42.3 cm, Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth, Greece https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=1019102956923674&id=100064719367083&set=a.462183875948921&locale=el_GR

…Asclepius, that gentle craftsman who drove pain from the limbs that he healed, that hero who cured all types of diseases… as Pindar writes in Pythian 3, was the ancient Greek god of medicine and healing, both revered and deified for his mastery over human suffering. This divine healer is brought vividly to life in the Statuette of Asklepios Enthroned, crafted in an Athenian workshop between 150–200 AD and now housed in the Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth. Carved from marble and standing 42.3 cm tall, the figure captures Asclepius in a moment of quiet authority, seated with the familiar serpent-entwined staff at his side—a timeless symbol of restoration and medical care. Though created centuries after the height of his cult, the statuette reflects the enduring presence of Asclepius in both public worship and private devotion, embodying the belief in divine healing that spanned from the classical world into the Roman era. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0162%3Abook%3DP.%3Apoem%3D3

The Ancient Greek myths of Asclepius tell the story of a mortal born to the god Apollo and the human woman Coronis, who was raised and taught the healing arts by the wise centaur Chiron. Gifted beyond any healer before him, Asclepius became so skilled that he was said to cure incurable diseases and even bring the dead back to life. This miraculous power, however, drew the ire of Zeus, who feared that such abilities would upset the natural balance between life and death. In response, Zeus struck Asclepius down with a thunderbolt, ending his mortal life but paving the way for his deification. Worshipped across the Greek world, particularly in healing sanctuaries known as Asclepieia, Asclepius became a symbol of divine compassion and medical wisdom, bridging the realms of myth, religion, and early medical practice.

The healing sanctuaries of Asclepios become some of the most important religious and medical centers of the classical world. The most famous of these was at Epidaurus in the northeastern Peloponnese, a sprawling complex that included temples, dormitories for dream incubation, and even a theater. Other major centers of his cult were located on the island of Kos, where the physician Hippocrates is said to have trained, and at Pergamon in Asia Minor. In Athens, he was worshipped at the Asclepieion located at the foot of the Acropolis, near the Theater of Dionysus. These sanctuaries attracted the sick and afflicted from across the Greek world, who came seeking cures through ritual purification, offerings, and dreams in which Asclepius or his sacred serpent revealed treatments. His worship was not only a spiritual experience but also a foundational element in the evolution of ancient medicine.

Statuettes of deities from a late Roman house, Marble, Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth in Greece Photo: https://www.nga.gov/features/slideshows/from-the-ancient-to-the-byzantine-world.html#slide_2

The Statuette of Asklepios Enthroned, now housed in the Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth, was discovered during 1999 excavation period (by the American School of Classical Studies) of a domestic shrine within a luxurious Roman villa in the Panayia Field area of Corinth. The villa was destroyed by a violent earthquake in the late fourth century AD, preserving a collection of marble statuettes representing various deities, including Artemis, Dionysos, Herakles, Pan, Europa and Roma, alongside Asklepios (Sanders 1999, 441–444). These statuettes were part of a private cultic assemblage, suggesting ongoing pagan devotional practices within the home, even as Christianity was becoming dominant in the region. The presence of these figures in such an opulent residence reflects the persistence—albeit increasingly private—of traditional Greco-Roman religious customs among segments of the local elite during the final phases of pagan worship in Late Antique Corinth

Dated to 150–200 AD and discovered in Corinth, the Statuette presents a richly detailed image of the healing god seated in quiet authority. Asclepius is shown leaning slightly forward on a high-backed throne, his head turned gently to the right. He wears a plain round wreath atop his parted, curling hair, which falls to his shoulders, and his face is framed by a mustache and full, curly beard. Draped in a himation that cascades from his left shoulder in V-shaped folds with a zigzag border, the god’s right arm once rested over a large coiled snake, his sacred symbol, positioned along the right side of the throne. His network-style sandals, tied above the ankle, rest on a substantial footstool with squat animal feet and a central groove, while the throne itself is ornately carved with square-incised panels on the back, lyre-shaped legs, and projecting wings. A cushion beneath him adds to the sense of formality and comfort, enhancing the image of divine majesty.

Scholars suggest that this statuette may be a scaled marble reinterpretation of the famed chryselephantine cult statue of Asclepius by Thrasymedes of Paros, described by Pausanias in the temple at Epidaurus (2.27.2). Like the legendary cult image, the Corinthian figure holds a staff in his left arm and extends his right hand toward the coiled serpent, reflecting iconography seen on fourth-century BC Epidaurian coins. The white marble and traces of gilding on the Panagia statuette evoke the luxurious materials of ivory and gold used in the original, indicating it was likely crafted in homage to the Epidaurian prototype. This connection underscores the continuity of Asclepius’ cult and the enduring reverence for his divine healing power well into the Roman period.

For a Student Activity inspired by the Statuette of Asklepios Enthroned in Corinth, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.ascsa.edu.gr/uploads/media/hesperia/25068051.pdf  Pagan Statuettes in Late Antique Corinth, Sculptures from the Panayia Domus, HESPERIA 77 (2008), Pages 89-161

Byzantine Engagement Ring in the Stathatos Collection

by ArtByzantine ArtByzantine JewelryByzantiumGreek ArtJewelryStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Engagement Ring with a Greek Inscription, about 1175–1300 AD, Gold and enamel, Diameter: 2.1 x 2.3 cm, National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece
Image courtesy of the National Archaeological Museum, Athens
https://blogs.getty.edu/iris/put-a-ring-on-it/

In the shimmering glow of Byzantium’s golden age, love and faith were often sealed in objects of exquisite craftsmanship and deep symbolic meaning. Among these treasures, Byzantine Engagement Rings stand as powerful tokens of devotion, not only between husband and wife but also to God. One such remarkable example is the Byzantine Engagement Ring in the Stathatos Collection, adorned with intricate enamel decoration, reflecting the era’s profound intertwining of romance and spirituality. This ring, much like the art and culture of its time, serves as a testament to a society where marriage was both a sacred bond and a reflection of divine harmony. Let us explore the beauty, symbolism, and historical significance of this extraordinary artifact.

Ashley Hilton’s Getty IRIS blog post, “Put a Ring On It,” sparked my curiosity about the deep personal and historical narratives embedded in Byzantine jewelry, particularly the Byzantine gold ring of Goudeles from the Stathatos Collection. This ring, inscribed with a dedication to a lady named Maria, serves as a tangible testament to love, devotion, and identity in the Byzantine world. Hilton’s discussion of the ring inspired me to delve deeper into its historical and social context, as well as the role of the Goudeles family in Byzantine society.

So, let’s explore the ‘who’, ‘how’ and ‘what’ of this amazing Byzantine Engagement Ring by posing some questions!

Who was Goudeles and who was Maria, and what do we know about their identity or social status in Byzantine society? The name “Goudeles” is associated with a prominent Byzantine family active from the 11th to the 15th centuries. Members of this family held various significant positions within the Byzantine Empire. The gold engagement ring from the Stathatos Collection bears an inscription (on bezel): MNHCTΡΟΝ |ΔΙΔΟΜΗΓΟΥ | ΔΕΛΗC M | AΡHA (I, Goudeles, give this engagement ring to Maria). While the exact identity of Goudeles and Maria remains uncertain, the ring’s craftsmanship and materials suggest that both the bride and the groom lived during the late 12th early 13th centuries, and belonged to wealthy and possibly influential families. ​For the groom, given the family’s historical prominence, it’s plausible that the Goudeles who commissioned this ring was a member of this distinguished lineage, reflecting the family’s sustained status within Byzantine society.

What was the historical significance of the Goudeles family in the Byzantine Empire? The Goudeles family was a prominent Byzantine lineage, contributing significantly to both the military and administrative sectors of the empire over several centuries. The earliest known reference to the family appears on a 10th-century lead seal, which mentions a member of the Goudeles family who held the titles of imperial protospatharios and strategos, signifying his high-ranking military status. However, the exact details of his service and the specific region he governed remain uncertain.

During the Komnenian period, one of the most notable figures was Basil Tzykandeles Goudeles, who married Eudokia Angelina, the daughter of Theodora Komnene and Constantine Angelos. This alliance linked the Goudeles family to the ruling Komnenian and Angelos dynasties, which produced emperors such as Isaac II Angelos and Alexios III Angelos.

In the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Goudeles family strengthened its ties with the Palaiologan Dynasty through marriage. Among its distinguished members were Georgios Goudelis and Nicholas Goudelis. Georgios, in his testament, referred to himself as Ego Georgius Gudeles, servus prepotentis et sancti imperatoris et regis nostri (“I, George Gudeles, servant of our powerful and holy emperor and king”), reflecting his position within the Byzantine aristocracy. He served as mesazon (a chief ministerial role) under Emperors John V Palaiologos and Manuel II Palaiologos, assisting in governance and administration. Nicholas Goudeles, a diplomat in imperial service, was at one point considered for a high advisory position. During the final siege of Constantinople in 1453, he was among the defenders of the city’s Land Walls, and his fate after the city’s fall remains unknown. After the fall of Constantinople, members of the Goudeles family migrated to Italy, where they remained active in international commerce, particularly through cooperation with the maritime republic of Genoa.

Overall, the Goudeles family played a crucial role in Byzantine history, with members serving in high military, diplomatic, and administrative capacities. Their strategic alliances with ruling dynasties and their contributions to the empire’s governance reflect their lasting historical significance.

How does the design, decoration, and inscription of the Goudeles Engagement Ring in the Stathatos Collection showcase Byzantine artistry and symbolism? The Goudeles engagement ring in the Stathatos Collection is a fine example of inscribed Byzantine engagement jewelry, reflecting both artistic craftsmanship and social status. The ring’s band gradually widens to form an almost circular bezel. It is flat on the interior and slightly convex on the exterior, featuring an elaborate stylized vegetal decoration with intersecting blue spirals and green, red, and white flowers on its sides. The bezel is flat and contains a four-line inscription in blue enamel, framed within a green border. The intricate detailing, the use of precious materials, and the weight of the ring indicate that it likely belonged to a wealthy individual.

In Byzantine tradition, engagement rings (annuli pronubi), like wedding rings, were worn on the fourth digit (ring finger) of the left hand, as it was believed to have a direct connection to the heart, symbolizing eternal love and commitment. This ring exemplifies the fusion of Byzantine artistry, social hierarchy, and symbolic marital customs.

For a Student Activity, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://blogs.getty.edu/iris/put-a-ring-on-it/ and https://www.doaks.org/resources/seals/byzantine-seals/BZS.1958.106.3763 and ΣΟΛΩΜΟΥ Σ. (2019). Η συμβολή της μελέτης των διαθηκών της παλαιολόγειας περιόδου στην έρευνα των κοσμικών αξιωμάτων και τιμητικών τίτλων. Byzantina Symmeikta, 29, 25–72. https://doi.org/10.12681/byzsym.15563 and https://www.academia.edu/31240474/Heaven_and_Earth_Art_of_Byzantium_from_Greek_Collections_exh_cat_National_Gallery_of_Art_Washington_DC_J_P_Getty_Museum_the_Art_Institute_of_Chicago_Athens_2013_Edited_by_A_Drandaki_A_Tourta_and_D_Papanikola_Bakirtzi

The Medici in Faenza

by 16th century ArtArtItalian Renaissance ArtPowerpointsRenaissanceRenaissance ArtStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Majolica Plate decorated with the coat of arms of the Medici of Florence, 16th century (1525 – 1530), Diameter: 12.3 cm, International Museum of Ceramics in Faenza, Italy – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 2025

Visiting the International Museum of Ceramics in Faenza was an unforgettable experience, an inspiring journey through centuries of ceramic artistry. As someone with a deep appreciation for both history and design, I was truly impressed by the museum’s extraordinary collection, which showcases the global and cultural significance of ceramics in such a thoughtfully curated way. Among the many treasures, one piece that especially captivated me was a modest yet elegant Majolica plate from the 16th century, skillfully adorned with the coat of arms of the Medici of Florence. Despite its small size, just 12.3 cm in diameter, its refined craftsmanship and understated beauty spoke volumes. It offered a glimpse into The Medici in Faenza, a subtle yet powerful reminder of how far their influence reached, and how even the simplest objects can carry the weight of history with quiet grace. https://www.micfaenza.org/en/

Let’s explore the ‘how’, ‘’, ‘why’, and ‘what’ of the amazing ‘Majolica Plate decorated with the coat of arms of the Medici of Florence’ in theInternational Museum of Ceramics in Faenzaby posing some questions!

What is Majolica, and why was it significant in Renaissance Italy? A Majolica plate is a type of tin-glazed earthenware that became highly popular in Renaissance Italy for its vibrant colors and intricate designs. Made from clay and coated with a white tin glaze, the surface served as a canvas for hand-painted decoration using metallic oxide pigments, which became brilliantly glossy after firing. These plates often featured historical, mythological, or heraldic imagery—like the Medici coat of arms—and were prized for both their beauty and craftsmanship. More than just functional objects, Majolica plates were symbols of wealth, status, and artistic refinement, reflecting the cultural and political identity of their time.

What is the origin of the term “Majolica,” and how has its meaning and use evolved over time? The term “Majolica” originates from the Spanish island of Mallorca (Majorca), which was a key trading hub for ceramics between the Islamic world and Italy during the Middle Ages. Italian potters believed that the brightly colored, tin-glazed pottery imported through Mallorca came from there, and the name “Maiolica” (the Italian form) became associated with this style of earthenware. Initially, it referred specifically to the luxurious, vividly painted ceramics produced in Renaissance Italy, especially in centers like Faenza, Deruta, and Urbino. Over time, particularly in the 19th century, the term “Majolica” began to be used more broadly—and sometimes confusingly—to describe other types of colorful ceramics, including English Victorian ware with entirely different techniques. Despite this evolution, in its original sense, Majolica remains a celebrated hallmark of Italian Renaissance artistry and innovation in ceramics.

What role did the city of Faenza play in the development and prominence of Majolica earthenware? Faenza played a central role in the development and prominence of Majolica earthenware during the Renaissance, becoming one of the most important ceramic production centers in Italy. The city’s artisans were renowned for their technical skill and artistic innovation, helping to refine the tin-glazing technique that gave Majolica its brilliant, glossy surface. Faenza’s strategic location along trade routes and its strong guild traditions fostered an environment where ceramic craftsmanship could flourish. So influential was its production that the French term for fine tin-glazed pottery—faïence—derives from the name of the city. Faenza’s legacy in ceramics continues today, celebrated through institutions like the International Museum of Ceramics, which honors its rich contribution to the art form.

Why is the International Museum of Ceramics in Faenza considered an important institution in the world of ceramic art and history? The International Museum of Ceramics in Faenza is considered one of the most important institutions in the world of ceramic art and history due to its vast and diverse collection, its historical significance, and its role in preserving and promoting ceramic heritage. Founded in 1908, the museum houses work from ancient civilizations to contemporary ceramic art, representing cultures from across the globe. It is especially renowned for its comprehensive display of Italian Majolica, with masterpieces from key production centers like Faenza, Deruta, and Urbino. The museum also serves as a vital center for research, education, and innovation in ceramics, hosting exhibitions, workshops, and scholarly initiatives. Its presence in Faenza—a city with centuries-old ceramic traditions—further cements its role as a guardian of both local craftsmanship and international ceramic excellence.

How would you describe the ‘Majolica Plate decorated with the coat of arms of the Medici of Florence,’ in the International Museum of Ceramics in Faenza, Italy? When I visited the International Museum of Ceramics in Faenza on the 1st of April 2025, one piece that left a lasting impression on me was the Majolica Plate decorated with the coat of arms of the Medici of Florence. Though modest in size—just 12.3 cm in diameter—it stood out as a refined and powerful example of Renaissance ceramic artistry. Created between 1525 and 1530, the plate features the iconic Medici heraldry, beautifully rendered in vibrant tin-glaze colors that still hold their brilliance centuries later. What struck me most was the balance between its elegant simplicity and the rich symbolism it carried. The clean lines and careful proportions reflect the technical mastery of the Renaissance ceramic tradition, while the Medici emblem speaks volumes about the political and cultural reach of this powerful Florentine family. Standing before it, I felt a quiet awe—this small object encapsulated so much history, beauty, and meaning in such a graceful form.

For a Student Activity, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://www.metmuseum.org/met-publications/maiolica-italian-renaissance-ceramics-in-the-metropolitan-museum-of-art

Gian Lorenzo Bernini’s bust of Duke Francesco I d’Este

by 17th century ArtArtBaroqueSculptureStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1598-1680
Bust of Francesco I d’Este, 1650–1652, Marble, 98 x 106 x 50 cm, Galleria Estense, Modena, Italy – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou April 2025

Upon entering the Galleria Estense in Modena, visitors are greeted by a masterpiece of Baroque sculpture that sets an immediate tone of grandeur and theatricality, Gian Lorenzo Bernini’s bust of Duke Francesco I d’Este. Commissioned in the 1650s, this dazzling marble portrait is more than a likeness; it is a triumph of artistic bravura that captures the duke in a moment of almost divine command, his chest proudly thrust forward, his locks swirling with motion, and his gaze lofty and enigmatic. Bernini’s extraordinary ability to fuse idealization with vitality makes the bust an unforgettable encounter at the heart of the gallery’s collection. Decades later and miles away, the bust’s spirit found a new interpretation through the brush of Giovanni Boldini. His painting Bust of Francesco I d’Este after Gian Lorenzo Bernini, now in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., revives the sculpture’s theatrical essence in painterly form—transforming cool marble into a vibrant, expressive study of light and form. Boldini, known for his flair and fluid technique, pays homage not only to Bernini’s virtuosity but also to the enduring legacy of Baroque splendor.

​In August 1650, Duke Francesco I d’Este of Modena commissioned Gian Lorenzo Bernini to sculpt his portrait in marble. Initially, Bernini was reluctant to undertake the project without meeting the Duke in person, considering it an “almost impossible” task. However, with the persistent intercession of Cardinal Rinaldo d’Este, the Duke’s brother, Bernini agreed, provided he received multiple portraits of the Duke and precise measurements of his height and shoulder width. Consequently, two profile portraits by Justus Sustermans were sent to Rome, while a frontal portrait by Jean Boulanger did not arrive in time. Bernini began sculpting in August 1651 and completed the bust by September. The sculpture arrived in Modena in November, and upon unveiling, the Duke was so impressed that he paid Bernini 3,000 scudi—the same amount Pope Innocent X had paid for the Fountain of the Four Rivers in Rome. This generous payment not only reflected the Duke’s satisfaction but also underscored his ambition to elevate the cultural stature of the Este court through patronage of renowned artists.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1598-1680
Bust of Francesco I d’Este, 1650–1652, Marble, 98 x 106 x 50 cm, Galleria Estense, Modena, Italy https://ducatoestense.com/en/beni-storici-artistici/bust-of-duke-francesco-i-deste/

Bernini’s bust portrait of Francesco I d’Este stands as a quintessential example of Baroque art, embodying the movement’s defining traits of dynamism, theatricality, and grandeur. Far from being a static likeness, the sculpture radiates energy and authority: the Duke’s chest swells with pride, his elaborate curls cascade in dramatic motion, and his expression conveys both noble detachment and inner vitality. Bernini masterfully transforms marble into a living presence, infusing the work with psychological depth and an almost divine aura. This portrait doesn’t merely represent Francesco—it exalts him, turning the Duke into a timeless symbol of princely power and ambition. In doing so, Bernini demonstrates how sculpture in the Baroque era was not just about capturing appearances, but about commanding emotion and crafting an idealized image of rulership through the language of art.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1598-1680
Bust of Francesco I d’Este, 1650–1652, Marble, 98 x 106 x 50 cm, Galleria Estense, Modena, Italy – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou April 2025
Giovanni Boldini, 1842-1931
Bust of Francesco I d’Este after Gian Lorenzo Bernini, c. 1890/1900, brown and blue washes on ivory wove paper, 45.5 x 30.4 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC, USA https://www.nga.gov/press/acquisitions/2022/boldini.html

In the late 19th century, Giovanni Boldini, celebrated for his dynamic and elegant portraits, created a wash drawing titled Bust of Francesco I d’Este, inspired by Gian Lorenzo Bernini’s renowned marble sculpture. Executed around 1890–1900, during Boldini’s flourishing career in Paris, the drawing captures the essence of Bernini’s Baroque masterpiece through expressive brown and blue washes on ivory wove paper. Boldini’s rendition emphasizes the dramatic curls and vigorous movement of the original bust, portraying the head in full profile while simplifying certain elements, such as omitting the lace collar and armor. This approach highlights Boldini’s theatrical style and his ability to convey vitality and motion, aligning with the gestural tendencies of contemporaries like John Singer Sargent. The drawing not only pays homage to Bernini’s work but also reflects Boldini’s exploration of abstract form, bridging 19th-century impressionism and the gestural styles that would influence 20th-century modernism. Acquired by the National Gallery of Art in 2021, this piece enriches the museum’s collection, illustrating the enduring impact of Baroque artistry on later generations

For art lovers, the Galleria Estense in Modena offers more than a collection, it offers a journey into the heart of artistic brilliance, where Bernini’s bust of Francesco I d’Este greets visitors with imperial flair and sculptural poetry. Its enduring legacy, later reimagined through the fluid hand of Giovanni Boldini, reminds us that true masterpieces do not merely survive the passage of time—they continue to speak, to inspire, and to live on in new and unexpected forms.

For a Student Activity on Gian Lorenzo Bernini’s Bust of Francesco I d’Este, and Giovanni Boldini painting of Francesco’s Bust, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: https://ducatoestense.com/en/beni-storici-artistici/bust-of-duke-francesco-i-deste/ and https://www.nga.gov/press/acquisitions/2022/boldini.html

Mithraic Aion and Orphic Phanes

by ArchaeologyArtMythologyRoman ArtSculptureStudent ActivitiesWorksheets
Syncretistic deity Aion-Phanes, second quarter of 2nd century AD, Marble, 71×48,5 cm, Galleria Estense, Modena, Italy – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 2025

In the richly symbolic world of late antiquity, the Roman relief sculpture housed in the Galleria Estense in Modena, Italy, offers a captivating glimpse into the syncretic religious landscape of the 2nd century AD. This intricate relief brings together two enigmatic deities—Mithraic Aion and Orphic Phanes—whose fusion reflects a profound cosmological vision. Aion, central to Mithraic mystery cults, embodies boundless time and eternity, often depicted encircled by the zodiac, signifying the cyclical nature of existence. Phanes, a radiant, primordial god of light and creation in Orphic tradition, emerges from the cosmic egg, symbolizing the birth of order from chaos. The pairing of these figures on a single relief not only highlights the cross-pollination of Eastern and Hellenic religious ideas within the Roman Empire but also reveals a deep fascination with the mysteries of time, origin, and divine illumination.

Let’s explore the ‘what’, and the ‘how’ of this amazing Roman relief sculpture by posing some questions!

What does the figure of Aion represent in the context of Mithraic iconography, and how does his symbolism reflect the cosmological themes of Mithraism? Aion, in the context of Mithraism, is a mysterious and symbolic deity associated with eternal, cyclical time and the cosmos. While not a central figure in the Mithraic mysteries, he appears in some Mithraic iconography, most notably as a lion-headed figure entwined by a serpent, often standing on a globe and surrounded by zodiac symbols. This image represents cosmic time, the eternal cycle of the heavens, and possibly the control of celestial forces. Though not named explicitly in surviving texts, this figure is often identified as Aion, drawing parallels with the Greek personification of time, the Persian god Zurvan, and even with Gnostic aeons. Aion’s presence in Mithraism underscores the religion’s deep cosmological and esoteric focus, blending influences from Greco-Roman, Persian, and later philosophical traditions into a symbolic representation of the eternal and mysterious forces that govern the universe.

Syncretistic deity Aion-Phanes, second quarter of 2nd century AD, Marble, 71×48,5 cm, Galleria Estense, Modena, Italy – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 2025

What does the figure of Phanes represent in the context of Orphic iconography, and how does his symbolism reflect the cosmological themes of Orphism? In the context of Orphic iconography, Phanes represents the primordial god of creation, light, and life, embodying the emergence of the cosmos from a state of chaos. He is often depicted as a radiant, androgynous figure, sometimes with wings, surrounded by zodiac symbols, and entwined by a serpent, much like the later images of Aion. In Orphic cosmology, Phanes is the first-born deity who emerges from the cosmic egg, breaking it open to release the ordered universe. He is the source of all gods and beings, radiating divine intelligence and life into the cosmos. His symbolism reflects key Orphic themes such as rebirth, cosmic order, and divine light, and his role as a creator positions him at the center of a spiritual narrative in which the soul seeks to return to its divine origin. Phanes illustrates the Orphic belief in a hidden, mystical structure underlying the universe, one governed by divine reason and illuminated by sacred knowledge.

Syncretistic deity Aion-Phanes, second quarter of 2nd century AD, Marble, 71×48,5 cm, Galleria Estense, Modena, Italy – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 2025
Syncretistic deity Aion-Phanes, second quarter of 2nd century AD, Marble, 71×48,5 cm, Galleria Estense, Modena, Italy https://gallerie-estensi.beniculturali.it/blog/il-rilievo-marmoreo-con-il-dio-aion-phanes/

How does the Modena relief of Aion/Phanes visually represent the cosmological and theological concepts of time, creation, and divine order in Roman mystery religions? The Roman relief sculpture from the second quarter of the second century AD, housed in the Galleria Estense in Modena, presents a richly symbolic and cosmologically charged depiction of a deity identified with Aion, Phanes, Chronos, or Eros—various names for a single primordial figure associated with cosmic time, creation, and divine light. At the center stands a radiant, naked youth whose powerful presence merges multiple divine attributes. He holds a thunderbolt in his right hand and a long staff in his left, suggesting authority over both cosmic order and divine revelation. His hoof-shaped feet rest on an upturned cone, half of a cosmic egg, from which flames burst—symbolizing the act of creation. A matching, flame-emitting cone rises above his five-rayed, curly-haired head, reinforcing the theme of birth from chaos. Encircling his body in four spirals is a serpent, its head emerging above the flames—an ancient symbol of eternity, rebirth, and cosmic continuity. The figure’s wings, lion’s head chest mask, and emerging animal heads (a ram and a buck) further emphasize his fusion of natural, divine, and astrological forces. The crescent moon behind his shoulders adds a lunar dimension, balancing the solar imagery of fire and rays.

Syncretistic deity Aion-Phanes, second quarter of 2nd century AD, Marble, 71×48,5 cm, Galleria Estense, Modena, Italy – Photo Credit: Amalia Spiliakou, April 2025

This figure is enclosed within an elliptical zodiacal band, divided into twelve sections, each containing a zodiac sign, beginning with Aries above the deity’s head and continuing counterclockwise through the signs to Pisces. Each sign is carefully personified—for instance, Gemini are shown embracing, with one playing a lyre, while Aquarius is represented as a naked youth pouring water from an amphora. The full zodiac, surrounding the god, positions him at the center of cosmic time and astral influence, underscoring his identity as a divine force who governs the heavens and the passage of time. In each corner of the relief, the four winds are personified—Zephyrus, Notus, Boreas, and Eurus—contributing to the all-encompassing cosmological vision. An inscription dedicates the sculpture to Felix and Euphrosyne, though her name was later partially erased, likely due to the Mithraic ban on female initiates. This relief encapsulates the esoteric worldview of late Roman religious thought, where divine creation, astrological order, and mystery cult symbolism intertwine in a single, intricate visual theology.

From fire and serpent, time itself takes form—Aion-Phanes rises, eternal guardian of the stars and the spark of creation.

For Student Activities inspired by the amazing Roman relief sculpture of Aion-Phanes in Galleria Estense in Modena, please… Check HERE!

Bibliography: Aion by Doro Levi, Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Oct. – Dec., 1944), pp. 269-314 (46 pages) https://www.jstor.org/stable/146699?read-now=1&seq=42#page_scan_tab_contents and https://gallerie-estensi.beniculturali.it/en/collections/works-of-art/#/dettaglio/821254_Aion/Phanes%20all’interno%20dello%20zodiaco and https://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/mithras/display.php?page=cimrm695